rrr 


V 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF 

CALIFORNIA 

SAN  DIEGO 


Date  Due 


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NATIONAL  MUNICIPAL  LEAGUE 
SERIES 


CITY   GOVERNMENT 
BY   COMMISSION 


CITY   GOVERNMENT 
BY  COMMISSION 


EDITED   BY 

CLINTON    ROGERS   WOODRUFF 


NEW    YORK    AND    LONDON 

D.     APPLETON     AND     COMPANY 

igi  I 


Copyright,  igti,  by 
D.  APPLETON  ANP  COMPANY 


Published  September,  1911 


Printed  in  tlie  United  States  of  America 


INTRODUCTION 


For  seventeen  years  the  National  Municipal  League 
has  been  the  open  forum  for  the  discussion  of  munici- 
pal problems.  In  that  time  a  great  mass  of  valuable 
papers,  documents,  and  discussions  has  been  accumu- 
lated. An  increasing  quantity  of  this  material,  how- 
ever, is  almost  inaccessible  to  new  readers,  members 
and  investigators,  because  the  editions  of  the  various 
Proceedings  are  about  exhausted. 

How  shall  this  material,  which  has  proved  so  helpful 
in  the  past,  be  made  available  for  the  growing  numbers 
of  students  of  municipal  affairs  ?  To  this  question  the 
Business  Committee  of  the  League  has  given  its  atten- 
tion, with  the  result  that  arrangements  have  been  made 
with  the  house  of  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  New 
York,  to  publish  at  popular  prices  a  National  Municipal 
League  Series,  to  be  made  up  of  volumes,  each  dealing 
with  a  special  phase  of  the  municipal  problem.  Each 
one  will  contain  the  principal  and  most  timely  papers 
presented  to  the  League  dealing  with  the  subject,  to- 
gether with  such  additional  matter  as  may  be  necessary 
to  bring  the  volume  up  to  date  and  to  make  it  a  com- 
plete and  comprehensive  discussion. 

Among  the  other  volumes  which  the  Publication 


INTRODUCTION 

Committee  has  in  early  contemplation  is  one  on  "  The 
Initiative,  Referendum,  and  Recall,"  to  be  edited  by 
Prof.  William  Bennett  Munro,  of  Harvard;  Prof. 
Augustus  Raymond  Hatton,  of  the  Western  Reserve 
University,  Cleveland,  is  at  work  on  a  volume  on 
"  Constitutional  Municipal  Home  Rule,"  and  Dr.  Clyde 
F.  King,  formerly  of  the  University  of  Colorado,  now 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  will  edit  the  volume 
on  "  Franchises."  The  papers  prepared  by  the  Com- 
mittee on  School  Extension  will  also  be  published  in 
full  in  the  series. 

Other  volumes  planned  for  deal  with  "  Municipal 
Recreation,"  "  City  Planning,"  "  Municipal  Health 
and  Sanitation,"  and  "  City  Finances."  The  Publi- 
cation Committee  is  composed  of  Prof.  Albert  Bush- 
nell  Hart,  of  Harvard;  Prof.  Charles  A.  Beard,  of 
Columbia;  Dr.  William  Bennett  Munro,  of  Harvard; 
Prof.  L,  S.  Rowe,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Clinton  Rogers 
Woodruff,  Chairman. 


PREFACE 


The  first  volume  of  the  series  herewith  presented 
deals  with  the  highly  important  and  widely  considered 
question  of  "  City  Government  by  Commission."  It 
contains  the  papers  presented  to  the  League  by  Messrs. 
Dr.  Ernest  S.  Bradford,  Prof.  William  Bennett  Munro, 
Oswald  Ryan,  Rear  Admiral  Chadwick,  Ansley  Wil- 
cox, Esq., Horace  E.  Deming,  Esq.  Another  chapter 
contains  an  article  prepared  by  the  Chairman  of  the 
Executive  Committee,  Prof.  Albert  Bushnell  Hart. 
The  other  chapters  were  prepared  by  the  Secretary, 
Clinton  Rogers  Woodruff,  editor  of  the  volume. 

This  volume  contains  the  latest  available  data. 
It  aims  to  present  the  strongest  arguments  for  and 
against  a  system  which  has  been  more  widely  dis- 
cussed in  a  shorter  time  than  any  previous  plan  for 
the  improvement  of  municipal  administration.  It  seeks 
to  give  the  facts  from  official  reports,  so  that  the  im- 
partial and  thoughtful  student  may  inform  himself 
about  a  phase  of  municipal  life  which  is  attracting  an 
increasing  amount  of  attention. 

So  far  the  National  Municipal  League  has  not 
indorsed  the  commission  form  of  government  in  its 
entirety.     In  fact,  there  has  as  yet  been  no  agreement 


PREFACE 

among  publicists  as  to  what  is  the  irreducible  minimum 
which  can  be  called  commission  government.  Even  in 
Texas,  where  the  movement  had  its  origin,  we  find 
sundry  types,  all  called  by  the  same  name.  To  the  ex- 
tent that  the  commission  government  provides  a  short 
ballot,  a  concentration  of  authority  in  the  hands  of  re- 
sponsible officials,  the  elimination  of  ward  lines  and 
partisan  designations  in  the  selection  of  elective  offi- 
cials, adequate  publicity  in  the  conduct  of  public  affairs, 
the  merit  system,  and  a  city  administration  and  a  city 
administrator  responsive  to  the  deliberately  formed  and 
authoritatively  expressed  local  public  opinion  of  the 
city,  it  embodies  principles  for  which  the  League 
stands.  There  are  many  other  features  upon  w^hich  it 
has  expressed  no  opinion.  Abundant  opportunity,  how- 
ever, has  been  given  for  their  discussion,  and  at  Rich- 
mond, in  November,  191 1,  the  whole  subject  will  come 
up  for  a  further  consideration  and  the  possible  making 
of  an  authoritative  report. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I. — Growth  of  Interest  in  Commission  Govern- 
ment        I 

II. — History  of  the  Commission  Government  Idea   .      ii 
III. — Funt)Amextal  Principles  Involved  in  Commission 

Government 21 

IV. — The   Galveston   Plan,     By   Professor   William 

Bennett  Munro 44 

V. — Commission  Government  Described.    By  Oswald 

Ryan 64 

VI. — Provisions  of  Comihssion  Governments  Ana- 
lyzed.    By  Dr.  Ernest  S.  Bradford  ...       89 

VII. — Popular  Arguments  for  Commission  Govern- 
ment       130 

VIII. — Popular  Arguments  Against  the  System.    By 

Ansley  Wilcox 143 

IX. — Is  the  Commission  Form  Applicable  to  Large 
Cities?    By  Horace  E.  Deming  and  KnowUon 

Mixer 166 

X. — ^The  Newport  Plan.    By    Rear-Admiral   F.    E. 

Chadwick .        .     187 

XI. — ^Results  in  G.'Ylveston,  Houston,   and   Other 

Texas  Cities 211 

ix 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGB 

Xn. — Observation   on  Texas   Cities.    By  Professor 

Albert  Bushnell  Hart 227 

XIII. — Results  in  Des  Moines,  Cedar  Rapids,  and 

Other    Iowan  Cities 242 

XIV. — Results  in  Memphis  and  Other  Cities      .  265 

XV. — The  Growth  of  the  ^Iovement   ....  288 

XVI. — ^The  Summing  Up 307 

XVn. — The  Des  Moines  Plan 319 

XVin. — Bibliography .  355 

Index 371 


CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY 
COMMISSION 


CHAPTER   I 

GROWTH    OF    INTEREST    IN    COMMISSION    GOVERNMENT 

Without  question,  the  most  conspicuous  single 
development  of  recent  years  in  the  realm  of  American 
municipal  affairs  has  been  the  continued,  rapid,  and 
widespread  interest  in  the  commission  form  of  mu- 
nicipal government  and  in  charter  reform  generally. 
Actually  adopted,  to  date,  by  156  communities,  267 
other  communities  have  under  serious  consideration 
some  one  of  the  several  forms  of  commission  govern- 
ment. To  show  how  general  is  the  interest  in  this 
form  of  government,  the  following  figures  are  taken 
from  the  records  of  the  National  Municipal  League : 
In  the  New  England  states,  21  cities  are  considering 
the  subject;  in  the  Middle  States,  62;  in  the  South 
Atlantic,  20 ;  the  Eastern  Northern  Central,  51;  in 
the  Western  Northern  Central,  35;  in  the  Eastern 
Southern  Central,  19;  in  the  Western  Southern  Cen- 
tral, 24;  in  the  Mountain  States,  18;  in  the  Pacific 
States,  17 — a  total  of  267. 

This  is  a  most  remarkable  showing  and  clearly 


2         CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

indicates  the  extent  of  the  dissatisfaction  with  exist- 
ing conditions  and  of  the  desire  to  utihze  the  most 
approved  forms  of  successful  municipal  government. 
The  figures  for  general  charter  reform  movements  tell 
an  equally  impressive  story  and  fully  justify  the 
hopefulness  of  Ambassador  Bryce  regarding  Ameri- 
can municipal  government,  as  expressed  in  an  address, 
March  8,  191 1,  before  the  City  Club  of  New  York. 

In  the  words  of  the  Nezv  York  Tribune,'^  "  The 
great  gain  of  recent  years  has  been  the  popular 
resolution  to  improve  city  governments.  Having 
become  convinced  that  here  was  the  one  great  fail- 
ure of  American  democracy — and  Mr.  Bryce's  own 
criticisms  helped  powerfully  to  make  them  aware 
of  this — the  people  have  addressed  themselves  to 
the  task  of  making  them  a  success.  Some  of  the 
efforts  appear  almost  frantic,  as,  for  example,  the 
eager  experimenting  with  new  charters,  but  they  re- 
flect the  energy  which  is  being  directed  toward  bet- 
tering municipal  administration.  The  speed  with 
which  the  commission  form  of  government  has  spread 
through  the  country,  merely  because  originally  it  was 
reported  to  have  been  successful  in  one  place,  shows 
the  determination  of  people  to  leave  nothing  untried 
which  may  prove  a  means  to  honesty  and  efficiency." 

It  is  unfair,  however,  even  to  intimate  that  the 
movement  for  commission  government  has  spread 
"  merely  because  originally  it  was  reported  to  have 
been  successful  in  one  place."    To  date  no  city  which 

'Editorial,  March  10,  191 1. 


GROWTH    OF    INTEREST  3 

has  adopted  the  plan  by  a  vote,  or  had  the  plan  con- 
ferred upon  it  by  a  legislature,  has  abandoned  the 
system  or  even  taken  the  preliminary  steps  to  that 
end.  This  is  a  really  remarkable  record,  but  it  is  due 
partly  to  the  fact  that  commission  government  repre- 
sents the  concrete  application  of  certain  fundamental 
principles,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  subsequent  chapter ;  ^ 
and  it  is  also  due  to  the  fact  that  the  movement  has 
been  coincident  with  the  awakening  of  the  American 
people  to  their  civic  responsibilities  and  duties  and  to 
the  development  in  them  of  a  municipal  conscience 
and  consciousness. 

Unquestionably  a  part  of  the  early  growth  of  the 
commission  government  movement  was  due  to  the  re- 
markable success  achieved  in  Galveston,  where  it  had 
its  birth.  As  early  as  the  Chicago  meeting  of  the  Na- 
tional Municipal  League,  in  the  year  1904,  the  Secre- 
tary, in  his  annual  review,  declared  that  "  the  remark- 
able achievement  of  Galveston,  Texas,"  could  best  be 
told  in  the  testimony  of  a  neighboring,  competing  city, 
San  Antonio,  which,  by  the  way,  has  yet  to  follow  in 
Galveston's  footsteps : 

"  Only  a  little  more  than  three  years  ago  the  City 
of  Galveston  was  laid  waste  by  one  of  the  most  dis- 
astrous storms  in  the  history  of  this  country.  Thou- 
sands of  lives  were  lost  and  hundreds  of  families  ren- 
dered homeless.  With  the  terrible  destruction  of 
property  and  diminishing  of  property  values,  with  a 
heavy  bonded  indebtedness,  and  no  funds  with  which 

1  See  Chapter  III. 


4         CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

to  meet  the  accrued  and  accruing  interest,  the  city's 
credit  was  destroyed  and  the  outlook  was  most  dis- 
couraging. 

"  In  her  dire  extremity  Galveston  abolished  the 
old  order  of  government  and  instituted  in  lieu  a  sys- 
tem which  comprises  a  mayor  and  four  commission- 
ers, and  these  were  selected  with  reference  to  their 
business  and  administrative  capabilities,  just  as  any 
business  or  industrial  corporation  would  select  those 
who  were  to  manage  and  direct  its  properties.  The 
result  is  attested  by  the  splendid  record  of  the  mu- 
nicipal government  of  Galveston,  as  shown  in  the 
official  reports,  which  forcibly  illustrates  what  can  be 
done  in  the  management  of  the  affairs  of  a  city.  .  .  . 
The  floating  debt  of  the  city,  on  January  i,  1901,  as 
per  city  auditor's  report,  was  $204,974.54.  This  sum 
has  been  reduced  by  the  present  administration,  as  per 
the  recently  adopted  city  budget,  to  $22,000,  without 
the  issuance  of  a  bond  or  one  cent  of  additional  tax- 
ation. 

"  It  is  also  noted  by  the  Houston  Post  that  since 
the  great  storm,  less  than  four  years  ago,  $75,000 
has  been  expended  for  street-paving,  and  in  the  bud- 
get adopted  by  the  City  Commission  a  few  days  ago, 
the  sum  of  $30,000  is  set  aside  for  new  paving,  and 
there  is  another  fund  of  $23,000  for  street  improve- 
ments during  the  present  fiscal  year.  The  sum  of 
$31,200  is  set  apart  for  the  maintenance  of  a  charity 
hospital  during  the  fiscal  year,  while  $2,000  is  set 
aside  for  beautifying  the  parks  and  esplanades — the 
playgrounds  of  the  people.     The  report  of  the  City 


GROWTH   OF   INTEREST  5 

Treasurer  shows,  at  the  close  of  business  last  month, 
there  was  $332,646.25  cash  in  hand,  and  $500,000  in 
bonded  depositories,  paying  the  city  3  per  cent  inter- 
est until  it  is  needed  in  the  grade-raising  work.^ 

"  Such  is  Galveston.  But  a  little  more  than  three 
years  ago  she  was  stricken  almost  to  death.  Her 
credit  became  nil,  her  public  buildings  were  demol- 
ished, and  her  streets  were  strewn  with  the  wreckage 
of  thousands  of  homes.  To-day,  under  the  wise  ad- 
ministration of  an  able  commission  of  five  of  the  lead- 
ing citizens,  who  disregard  the  clamor  of  the  political 
spoilsman,  and  who  work  from  patriotic  motives, 
Galveston  has  a  credit  at  least  unsurpassed  by  any 
city  in  the  South.  She  is  doing  more  public  work,  in 
proportion  to  population,  than  any  city  in  the  South. 
And  she  has  the  money  to  pay  for  this  work.  Gal- 
veston's example  in  municipal  thrift  is  a  lesson  which 
all  cities  should  learn.  It  demonstrates  what  strictly 
business  methods  will  accomplish,  and  is  a  power- 
ful appeal  for  driving  politics  out  of  municipal  af- 
fairs." 2 

This,  I  think,  was  the  first  national  recognition  of 
an  experiment  in  the  management  of  municipal  af- 
fairs, which  has  achieved  not  only  national,  but  inter- 
national, fame. 

In  1906  the  League  further  reported  that  the 
Galveston  plan  of  government  continued  to  excite  at- 

*  For  further  information,  see  Chapter  XII,  by  Dr.  Albert  Bush- 
nell  Hart,  detailing  the  experiences  of  Galveston  and  other  Texas 
cities;  also  Chapter  XI. 

^  See  Proceedings  oj  the  Chicago  Conference  (1904),  page  103. 


6         CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

tention,  because  it  had  "  produced  such  admirable 
results  through  conscientious,  faithful  administration 
in  the  city  of  its  origin  that  it  has  been  copied  in  other 
Texas  cities  and  has  been  very  generally  considered 
in  other  states,  notably  in  Iowa,  where,  however,  it 
has  not  secured  sufficient  support  to  secure  enactment 
into  law."  ^ 

From  that  time  interest  in  the  movement  grew  by 
leaps  and  bounds,  and  to-day  is  the  most  significant, 
and  in  many  ways  one  of  the  most  hopeful,  phases  of 
the  new  civic  life  of  America. 

A  straight  commission  form  of  municipal  govern- 
ment, in  the  judgment  of  Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot,  one 
of  its  most  active  advocates,  requires  a  commission 
composed  of  five  members  elected  at  large,  one  of  whom 
is  called  the  mayor,  acting  as  chairman  of  the  commis- 
sion, but  with  no  veto  power,  or  any  other  special 
power  not  shared  by  the  other  members  of  the  com- 
mission. The  commission  so  elected  is  the  source  of 
all  authority  in  the  city,  makes  all  ordinances,  appoints 
all  officials,  collects  taxes,  and  makes  all  appropria- 
tions. As  set  forth  by  its  advocates,  the  significant 
features  of  the  plan,  in  addition  to  those  already  men- 
tioned, are: 

Assignment  of  the  important  divisions  of  the  city 
government  to  individual  members  of  the  commis- 
sion, or  to  their  election  thereto  by  the  voters,  each 
being  directly  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  his  par- 
ticular   department ;    adequate    compensation    to    the 

*  See  Proceedings  of  the  Atlantic  City  Conference  (1906),  page  120. 


GROWTH    OF   INTEREST  7 

commissioners  for  their  time  and  labor,  the  city  em- 
ploying all  the  commissioners  at  living  salaries,  thus 
elevating  the  dignity  of  municipal  service  and  making 
of  it  a  public  career,  and  not  a  mere  avocation;  regu- 
larity, frequency,  and  publicity  of  the  meetings  of  the 
commissioners;  all  employees  above  the  class  of  day 
laborers  selected  from  eligible  lists  based  on  examina- 
tions, oral  and  written,  carefully  devised  to  develop 
merit  and  fitness ;  recommendations  after  examination 
by  an  independent  civil  service  commission ;  ^  pro- 
vision for  the  retention  in  office  of  all  employees  so 
appointed  during  good  behavior;  the  power  to  initiate 
desired  legislation  reserved  to  the  people,  this  right 
being  known  as  the  initiative;  the  power  to  call  for 
a  public  vote  on  any  measure  adopted  by  the  commis- 
sion before  being  given  effect  as  law  reserved  to  the 
people,  this  being  known  as  the  referendum;  the 
power  at  any  time  to  make  any  member  of  the  com- 
mission stand  for  reelection  reserved  to  the  people, 
this  being  known  as  the  recall ;  the  granting  of  public 
franchise  always  to  be  submitted  to  the  approval  of 
the  electors. - 

There  are  two  other  most  important  features :  the 
introduction  of  the  principle  of  the  short  ballot  and 
the  elimination  of  ward  lines.  In  the  matured  judg- 
ment of  municipal  students  these  are  considered,  to- 


*  For  the  inadequacy  of  civil  service  provisions  in  some  of  the 
commission  charters,  see  paper  of  Elliot  H.  Goodwin,  read  at  the 
Buffalo  meeting  of  the  National  Municipal  League,  1910. 

2  See  Analysis  prepared  by  the  Charleston,  S.  C,  Community 
Club. 

2 


8         CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

gether  with  the  concentration  of  authority,  as  the 
most  effective  features  of  the  system. 

Some  idea  of  the  growth  of  the  commission  form 
of  government  may  be  measured  by  the  extent  of  its 
adoption  within  the  past  four  years,  a  detailed  account 
of  which  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XV.  Texas,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Kentucky,  IVIis- 
sissippi,  Minnesota,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Louisiana, 
South  Carolina,  Oklahoma,  Montana,  and  Wyoming 
have  passed  laws  relating  to  all  or  certain  classes  of 
cities  within  their  respective  borders.^ 

An  interesting  and  significant  development  of  the 
movement  has  been  the  graphic  delineation  of  the 
merits  of  the  system  in  the  way  of  the  concentration 
of  authority  and  responsibility.  For  instance,  the 
Commission  Government  Association,  of  Buffalo,  has 
issued  two  charts,  one  entitled  "  The  people  do  not 
rule,"  show^ing  how  the  powers  under  the  present 
charter  of  Buffalo  are  dispersed  among  bureaus  and 
bodies,  none  of  which  is  directly  and  absolutely  re- 
sponsible to  the  electors;  the  other,  under  the  caption 
of  "  The  people  rule."  shows  how  the  voters  are  the 
source  of  first  and  final  authority  and  hold  within 
their  hands  the  complete  power,  not  only  over  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  government,  but  over  the  subject  matter 
of  the  government. 

*  For  a  list  of  the  cities  governed  by  commissions  up  to  May 
5,  191 1,  see  Chapter  XV. 


THE  PEOPLE  DO  NOT 

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CHAPTER    II 

HISTORY   OF    THE    COMMISSION    GOVERNMENT    IDEA 

Students  of  government  generally  are  agreed 
that  the  term  "  commission  government,"  as  it  has 
come  to  be  applied  to  American  cities,  is  somewhat 
confusing  and  unfortunate,  especially  in  those  states 
where  "  commissions  "  have  been  important  branches 
of  state  administration.  It  is  confusing,  as  is  pointed 
out  in  the  Bulletin  issued  by  the  University  Exten- 
sion Division  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  of  which 
Dr.  F.  H.  MacGregor  is  editor,  because  when  applied 
to  state  and  to  city  administration  it  means  two  quite 
different  things,  and  unfortunate  because  by  appli- 
cation it  has  attached  to  a  particular  form  of  mu- 
nicipal organization  all  the  prejudice  and  opposition 
that  has  grown  up  around  an  entirely  different  sys- 
tem of  state  administration.  In  this  way  the  appli- 
cation of  the  name  has,  as  the  Bulletin  declares,  to 
some  extent,  at  least,  impaired  the  popularity  of  the 
new  form  of  city  government,  particularly  among 
those  who  do  not  thoroughly  understand  its  organiza- 
tion, although  that  impression  is  being  rapidly  dimin- 
ished with  growing  familiarity  with  the  system. 

As   applied  to  state  and  national  administration. 


12       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

the  term  "  commission  government  "  is  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  growing  practice  of  delegating  to  ap- 
pointed administrative  boards  or  commissions — the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  state  railroad  com- 
missions, tax  commissions,  boards  of  control,  etc. — the 
administration  of  certain  special  or  specified  execu- 
tive functions.  These  commissions  are  appointed  by 
the  president  or  governor  for  definite  terms  and  take 
over  from  the  executive  complete  control  of  that 
branch  of  the  administration  which  falls  within  their 
province. 

From  the  standpoint  of  organization,  then,  "  com- 
mission government,"  as  applied  to  the  state,  connotes 
decentralization,  the  delegation  and  division  of  au- 
thority and  responsibility,  and  the  disintegration  of 
popular  control.  On  this  account  the  spread  of  the 
practice  has  developed  considerable  prejudice  against 
the  number  and  scope  of  such  commissions  "  taking 
away  the  real  governing  powers,"  as  has  been  thought, 
from  the  representatives  of  the  people.  Unjust  as  this 
feeling  has  been  in  many,  possibly  most,  instances,  it 
has  left  a  more  or  less  general  dislike  for  the  term 
"  government  by  commission  "  in  the  popular  mind. 

As  applied  to  city  administration,  however,  com- 
mission government  has  a  very  different  meaning.  In 
striking  contrast  to  its  use  in  connection  with  the  state, 
it  is  used  to  designate  the  most  concentrated  and  cen- 
tralized type  of  organization  which  has  yet  appeared 
in  the  annals  of  representative  municipal  history. 
Under  so-called  commission  government  for  cities, 
the  entire  administration  of  the  city's  affairs  is  placed 


HISTORY    OF    THE    IDEA 


13 


in  the  hands  of  a  small  board  of  council — "  commis- 
sion " — elected  at  large  and  responsible  directly  to  the 
electorate  for  the  government  of  the  city.  In  short, 
this  council  is  the  whole  government  of  the  city.  The 
ordinary  traditional  system  of  checks  and  balances, 
the  separation  of  powers  into  legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial,  is  abandoned.  All  of  these  powers  are 
combined,  and  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  that  one 
governing  board.  It  levies  the  taxes,  votes  the  ap- 
propriations, enacts  and  enforces  the  laws,  administers 
the  public  services,  superintends  the  entire  adminis- 
tration of  the  city's  business.  Its  members,  usually 
five  in  number,  are  the  only  elective  officers  of  the 
city;  all  others  are  abolished  or  made  appointive  by, 
and  subservient  to,  the  board.  It  employs  its  officers, 
clerks,  and  employees,  and  removes  them  at  will.  The 
administration  is  usually,  though  not  always,  divided 
between  the  members  of  the  board,  each  being  placed 
at  the  head  of  a  department — public  affairs,  police 
and  fire,  parks  and  property,  finance  and  revenue,  etc. 
Each  member  acts  as  general  manager  of  his  depart- 
ment, outlines  its  policy,  and  represents  it  on  the  coun- 
cil or  governing  board.  In  brief,  commission  govern- 
ment, as  applied  to  cities,  is  an  attempt  to  apply 
present-day  commercial  and  industrial  methods  to  the 
administration  of  municipal  business. 

What  is  popularly  known  as  commission  govern- 
ment in  American  cities  is  in  reality  not  commission 
government  at  all.  in  any  proper  use  of  the  term,  but 
government  by  selectmen,  aldermen-at-large,  or  by 
boards  of  municipal  directors.     These  latter  names 


14       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

and  others  have  been  suggested  as  being  more  appro- 
priate, but  the  term  "  commission  "  has  now  come  to 
be  so  linked  in  the  popular  mind  with  the  form  of  ad- 
ministration adopted  in  Galveston  and  Des  Moines, 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  change  it  at  the  present 
time.  It  originated  in  Galveston,  and  was  suggested 
because  under  Galveston's  first  charter  a  majority  of 
the  members  of  its  administrative  board  were  ap- 
pointed and  "  commissioned  "  by  the  governor  of  the 
state.  Although  all  the  members  were  two  years  later 
made  elective,  the  term  board  of  commissioners  w^as 
still  retained,  and  commission  government  came  to  be 
the  name  commonly  used  to  designate  that  form  of 
municipal  organization,  and  still  obtains,  although 
most  cities  which  have  since  adopted  the  plan  have  re- 
tained the  terms  city  council  and  aldermen  or  council- 
men,  instead  of  commissioners,  largely  to  make  sure 
that  the  powers  of  government  formerly  exercised  by 
the  council  could  be  likewise  exercised  by  the  commis- 
sion.^ 

We  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  commission 
government,  even  as  we  now  understand  it,  as  applied 
to  municipal  administration,  is  not  wholly  new  in 
America.  Prof.  J.  H.  Beale,  Jr.,  of  the  Harvard  Law 
School,  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  the  city  of 
Boston,  Mass.,  started  off  with  government  by  com- 
mission. In  an  address  before  the  Economic  Club, 
of  Boston,^  he  said :  "  The  first  city  charter,  proposed 

*  See  Bulletin  of  the  University  Extension  Division,  University  of 
Wisconsin,  1 9 1 1 . 

*  January  21,  1908. 


HISTORY    OF    THE    IDEA 


IS 


by  Judge  Shaw  and  his  associates,  provided  a  board, 
which  was  simply  the  successor  of  the  board  of  select- 
men of  the  town  of  Boston,  to  do  all  the  executive 
business  of  the  city." 

Moreover,  our  county  governments  in  many  of  our 
states  have  for  many  years  been  governed  by  county 
commissioners,  usually  three  in  number,  to  whom 
have  been  committed  all  the  functions  of  local  gov- 
ernment. As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  nothing  new 
under  the  sun.  George  R.  Wallace,  Esq.,  a  former 
civil  service  commissioner  of  Pittsburgh,  in  an  address 
quoted  ^  the  following  language  : 

"  We  decree  also  that  in  the  said  burg  of  North- 
ampton there  shall  be  elected,  by  the  common  choice 
of  the  burghers,  four  of  the  more  learned  and  dis- 
creet (legalioribus  et  discretioribus)  citizens,  who 
shall  care  for  the  revenues  of  the  Crown  and  other 
matters  which  to  us  and  our  Crown  in  that  burg  per- 
tain, and  who  shall  see  to  it  that  the  citizens  of  the 
said  burg,  both  rich  and  poor,  shall  act  justly  and  ac- 
cording to  law,"  and  then  proceeded  to  say : 

"  The  above  quotation  is  not  taken  from  a  1910 
draft  of  a  commission  plan  of  government.  It  is  an 
extract  from  the  charter  granted  by  King  John  to  the 
city  of  Northampton  in  the  year  1200,  Many  other 
early  English  charters  can  be  found  in  substantially 
the  same  form.  During  the  last  ten  years  this  orig- 
inal form  of  English  city  government  has  been  redis- 
covered in  America,  and  we  have  been  progressing 

^Before  the  League  of  Third-class  Cities  in  Pennsylvania,  at 
York,  Pa.,  August,  1910. 


i6       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

backwards  toward  it,  although  no  American  city  has 
yet  reached  the  perfection  of  this  charter;  a  charter 
which  is  properly  divisible  into  two  parts,  one  grant- 
ing certain  powers  to  the  city  and  the  other,  which  is 
quoted  above,  vesting  the  exercise  of  those  powers  in 
a  small  council  elected  at  large." 

Many  of  the  later  English  charters  modified  this 
form  by  providing  for  an  executive  officer,  who  gen- 
erally sat  as  the  president  of  the  council  and  was 
called  burgess  or  mayor.  This  form  of  organization, 
it  will  be  noticed,  has  been  preserved  practically  un- 
changed in  our  modern  business  corporations,  namely, 
a  board  of  directors  elected  by  all  of  the  stockholders, 
a  president,  who  sits  as  chairman  of  the  board  and 
who  is  the  chief  executive  officer. 

Blackstone,  in  his  commentaries  on  the  English 
law,  Mr.  Wallace  further  points  out,  discusses  cor- 
porations as  follows : 

"  These  artificial  persons  are  called  bodies  politic, 
bodies  corporate  (corpora  corporata),  or  corporations, 
of  which  there  is  a  great  variety  subsisting,  for  the 
advancement  of  religion,  of  learning,  and  of  com- 
merce; in  order  to  maintain  entire  and  forever  these 
rights  and  immunities,  which,  if  they  were  granted 
only  to  those  individuals  of  which  the  body  corporate 
is  composed,  would,  upon  their  death,  be  utterly  lost 
and  extinct. 

"  Other  lay  corporations  are  erected  for  the  good 
government  of  a  town  or  particular  district,  as  a 
mayor  and  commonalty,  bailiff  and  burgesses,  or  the 
like." 


HISTORY    OF   THE    IDEA 


17 


It  will  be  noticed,  as  j\Ir.  Wallace  shows,  that  he 
draws  no  distinction  between  the  form  of  what  we 
call  private  corporations  and  municipal  or  public  cor- 
porations. The  reason  is  that  until  recent  times  there 
was  in  the  English  law  no  fundamental  distinction 
between  these  two  kinds  of  corporations.  They  were 
originally  founded  on  charters  granted  for  trading 
and  business  purposes,  and  they  had  substantially  the 
same  form  of  government.  Our  ancestors  in  the  old 
country  were  not  a  city-dwelling  people.  When  Will- 
iam of  Orange  crossed  the  narrow  waters  and  became 
King  of  England  there  was  only  one  city  in  England 
with  over  30.000  inhabitants,  and  only  five  with  over 
10,000  inhabitants. 

When  our  ancestors  came  to  this  country  they 
brought  with  them  their  English  ideas.  They  were 
not  a  city-dwelling  people.  In  1790  only  3.4  per  cent 
of  the  people  of  this  country  lived  in  cities  having  a 
population  of  8,000  or  over;  at  the  time  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  there  were  only  about  a  dozen  cities  in 
the  entire  colonies  that  had  charters  of  any  kind. 
While  there  was  considerable  variety  in  the  form  of 
the  early  charters  of  American  cities,  they  tended  to 
conform  more  or  less  closely  to  the  original  simple 
English  charter. 

"  But  the  growth  of  cities  in  this  country  has  been 
going  on  continuously,  and  by  1850  over  12  per 
cent  of  our  population  was  living  in  cities  of  8,000 
or  pver.  The  question  of  city  charters  assumed 
importance,  and,  most  unfortunately  for  us,  it  be- 
came  a    live   issue    during   the   time    of   the    ascend- 


i8       CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

ency  of  the  Democracy  under  Andrew  Jackson.  We 
owe  to  that  fact  a  long  train  of  evils  in  our  gov- 
ernment, from  which  we  are  just  beginning  to  re- 
cover. 

"  The  difference  between  the  old  Federal  party, 
which  has  been  succeeded  by  the  Republican  party, 
and  the  Democracy  as  established  by  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son, is  this:  The  Federal  party  stood  for  and  applied 
to  American  government  the  principles,  laws,  and 
customs  which  they  had  learned  in  England.  The 
Democracy  wished  to  modify  these  principles,  laws, 
and  customs  along  the  lines  of  the  teachings  of  Rous- 
seau and  other  French  writers  of  the  period  of  the 
Revolution.  These  French  writers  had  lived  through 
an  age  of  terrible  tyranny,  in  which  the  government 
was  the  enemy  of  the  people.  They  had  had  no  ex- 
perience in  free  institutions,  and  they  formed  their 
ideas  of  free  institutions  by  thinking  them  outside  of 
their  own  heads. 

"  They  taught  the  doctrine  that  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  governing  power  from  oppressing  the  people, 
it  was  necessary  to  divide  it  into  very  small  sections, 
so  that  no  one  man  would  ha^•e  enough  power  to  make 
him  dangerous;  that  all  public  officers  should  be 
elected  by  the  people,  so  that  every  public  employee 
would  be  directly  answerable  to  the  people ;  to  con- 
struct, in  other  words,  a  form  of  government  in 
which  a  multitude  of  petty  officials  should  take  the 
place  of  a  few  responsible  officials. 

"  Unfortunately  for  American  cities,  these  ideas 
were   impressed  upon  their  charters  about  the   time 


HISTORY   OF   THE   IDEA  19 

they  began  to  grow  rapidly  during  the  administration 
of  Andrew  Jackson  and  the  years  following. 

"  The  result  has  been,  as  students  of  history  and 
government  generally  realize,  the  reverse  of  what  the 
theory-makers  expected.  We  have  made  the  offices  so 
inconsiderable  that  they  have  neither  dignity,  honor, 
nor  responsibility.  They  have  been  contemned  by  the 
better  class  of  citizens;  they  have  fallen  naturally 
into  the  hands  of  men  utterly  incompetent  for  the 
positions,  and,  being  bodies  which  could  not  work, 
they  have  been  seized  in  almost  every  case  in  Ameri- 
can cities  by  an  unofficial  commission,  or,  as  in  many 
instances,  into  the  hands  of  a  single  commissioner  or 
boss,  which  has  run  the  council  and  the  city  without 
any  responsibility  to  anybody. 

"  We  have  split  our  cities  up  into  a  multiplicity 
of  small  wards  and  made  councilmanic  procedure  a 
mere  business  of  trading  between  wards  for  legisla- 
tion. We  have  enabled  little  groups  of  heelers  to 
scheme  for  the  control  of  a  ward,  and,  having  got  an 
organization  within  their  ward,  they  have  been  able 
utterly  to  disregard  public  opinion  and  the  interests  of 
the  city  as  a  whole." 

The  natural  cure  for  these  evils  suggests  itself  at 
once,  declares  Mr.  Wallace,  "  To  cut  out  the  strange 
growth  engrafted  upon  our  institutions  by  the  French 
doctors  and  return  to  the  healthy  and  simple  prin- 
ciples'  of  city  government  fundamental  in  English 
law.  We  are  now  electing  such  a  multiplicity  of 
officers  that  it  takes  a  Philadelphia  lawyer  to  know  all 
the  things  that  a  citizen  has  to  do  in  order  to  perform 


20       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

his  duties  of  citizenship.  The  average  citizen  cannot 
meet  these  obhgations,  and  the  result  is  these  duties 
of  citizenship  have  been  turned  over  to  organizations 
called  parties.  The  parties  in  turn  have  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  little  groups  of  men,  known  as  '  workers.' 
The  result  is  that  everybody  is  worked." 

So  little  do  we  profit  by  the  teachings  of  history 
that  few  people  thought  of  curing  the  failures  of  our 
city  government  by  going  back  to  first  principles  until 
Galveston,  by  accident,  stumbled  upon  this  plan  and 
was  hailed  as  the  inventor  of  a  new  thing. ^ 

*  For  a  further  consideration  of  the  development  of  political 
thought  and  action  leading  to  the  modem  formulation  of  the  com- 
mission government  idea,  see  Chapters  IV  and  V,  by  Prof. 
William  B.  Munro  and  Oswald  Ryan. 


CHAPTER    III 

FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN   COMMISSION 
GOVERNMENT 

Simplicity  may  very  properly  be  regarded  as  the 
cornerstone  of  the  commission  form  of  municipal 
government.  A  concise,  easily  understood  frame  of 
government  takes  the  place  of  a  complicated  one,  or, 
what  is  worse  still,  a  long  series  of  conflicting,  over- 
lapping, often  antiquated  and  usually  complex,  acts 
of  assembly.  The  Des  Moines  charter  covers  twenty- 
three  small  pamphlet  pages  and  contains  about  9,100 
words.  Contrast  this  with  ponderous  tomes  con- 
taining some  so-called  charters.  The  citizen  of  Des 
Moines  can  sit  down  and  read  his  charter  through  at 
a  single  sitting.  He  does  not  have  to  consult  a  lawyer 
to  interpret  the  meaning  of  its  provisions.  Ordinary 
intelligence  will  suffice  for  their  understanding. 

This  contrast  between  simplicity  and  complexity  is 
effectively  illustrated  by  two  cuts  which  appeared  in 
The  Toronto  World} 

These  charts  show  more  graphically  than  words 
the  present  system  of  Toronto's  city  government  and 

*  October  9,  19 10. 

21 


22       CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

as  that  city  would  be  under  the  proposed  commission 
plan.  They  exhibit  in  a  striking  way  the  contrast  be- 
tween the  divided  responsibility  and  illogical  character 
of  Toronto's  government  as  it  is  and  the  individual 
responsibility  and  simple  and  consistent  structure  of 
government  by  commission. 

.  Our  municipal  government  has  been  far  too  elabo- 
rate and  complex.  "  In  the  first  place,"  says  Dr.  C. 
W.  Eliot,  "  the  structure  of  the  city  government  in 
this  country  was  a  most  unfortunate  one.  It  was 
copied  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  from  the  struc- 
ture of  the  national  government,  and,  therefore,  had 
its  upper  house — the  aldermen;  its  lower  house — the 
common  council;  its  executive — the  mayor.  Now, 
city  business  is  almost  wholly  administrative  or  execu- 
tive, and  is  very  little  concerned  with  large  policies  or 
far-reaching  legislation.  There  is  no  occasion  for  two 
legislative  bodies,  or  even  one,  in  the  government  of 
a  city.  Modern  cities  have  to  provide  and  maintain 
schools,  roads  and  bridges,  sewers,  a  water  supply,  a 
fire  department,  courts,  police,  and  street  lights,  and 
to  take  care  of  the  numerous  helpless  and  defective 
members  of  the  community.  On  all  these  subjects 
there  is  no  doubt  whatever  as  to  what  the  people  need, 
and  the  proper  supply  of  their  needs  is  a  matter  of 
purely  administrative  business.  ,  .  .  The  conditions 
under  which  the  municipal  business  is  now  conducted 
are  so  different  from  those  which  existed  when  the 
American  form  of  city  government  was  set  up,  that 
one  might  reasonably  expect  a  form  not  wholly  im- 
practicable sixty  years  or  eighty  years  ago  to  have 


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25 


FUNDAMENTAL    PRIXXIPLES  27 

become  absolutely  unsuitable,  or  even  impossible, 
to-day."  ^ 

In  the  next  place,  Dr.  Eliot  might  with  propriety 
have  pointed  out  that  the  whole  scheme  of  our  gov- 
ernment, national,  state,  and  city,  was  based  on  the 
principle  of  checks  and  balances  rather  than  direct 
responsibility  and  responsiveness.  The  American  peo- 
ple were  not  long  in  finding  a  way  to  enforce  respon- 
sibility— through  political  parties  and  their  leaders. 
The  results,  however,  were  not  particularly  fortunate, 
for  the  price  exacted  was  too  high  and  too  disastrous. 
It  resulted  in  placing  party  loyalty  above  community 
loyalty.  It  presented  temptations  to  abuse  greater 
than  the  party,  or  its  leader  or  boss,  could  resist.  It 
substituted  party  responsibility  for  individual  respon- 
sibility, and  democracy  suffered.  But  really  it  was 
working  out  its  own  ends,  in  a  way  that  all  great  fun- 
damental movements  have,  and  the  demand  for  simple 
methods  of  government  is  a  result  of  the  growing 
demand  of  the  people  that  they  be  permitted  to  rule 
directly  through  their  directly  chosen  representatives 
rather  than  through  a  party  or  group  of  party 
leaders. 

Moreover,  as  Dr.  Rowe,  in  his  "  Problems  of  City 
Government,"  has  shown,  "  The  formative  period  in 
the  development  of  our  American  cities  was  dominated 
by  an  essentially  negative  view  of  government.  Dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  and  the  greater  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  American  political  thought  was  con- 

*  Charles  W.   Eliot,    "City  Government  by  Fewer   Men,"    in 
The  World's  Work,  October,  1907. 


28       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

cerned  primarily,  in  fact,  almost  exclusively,  with  the 
protection  of  individual  rights.  A  minimum  of  gov- 
ernment and  a  maximum  of  individual  liberty  repre- 
sented the  primary  standards  of  political  thought  and 
action."  A  system  of  checks  and  balances  was  almost 
an  essential  for  the  maintenance  of  a  government 
founded  on  such  ideal  and  for  such  ends.  As  Pro- 
fessor Rowe  declares,  however,  "  Viewed  in  the  per- 
spective of  the  last  hundred  years,  the  contrast  be- 
tween the  conditions  out  of  which  our  ideas  of  local 
government  developed  and  the  circumstances  which 
now  confront  us  is  fraught  with  lessons  which  we 
cannot  afford  to  ignore  if  we  hope  to  build  up  vig- 
orous, local  institutions.  The  menace  to  individual 
liberty  from  the  tyranny  of  government  is  no  longer 
a  real  one.  .  .  .  On  the  other  hand,  the  concentration 
of  population  and  the  growth  of  great  industrial  cen- 
ters have  brought  into  the  foreground  a  mass  of  new 
problems  which  the  community  is  compelled  to  face." 
Many  of  these  problems  come  directly  within  the 
legitimate  sphere  of  government,  but  so  strong  has 
been  the  hold  of  eighteenth-century  political  ideas  that 
in  most  of  our  cities  we  have  had  to  depend  upon 
private  effort  for  their  solution.^ 

A  system  carefully  built  up  to  foster  and  protect 
these  ideas  is  being  replaced.  The  division  of  power, 
designed  to  serve  as  a  check  and  balance,  but  forming 
as  time  went  on  a  hindrance  and  obstruction,  is  giving 
way  to  government  by  a  single  board.     In  place  of  a 

1  Pages  195,  196. 


FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES 


29 


city  government  composed  of  a  mayor,  a  city  council 
— of  possibly  two  chambers  made  up  from  ten  to 
thirty  aldermen  from  as  many  wards  and  divided  into 
as  many  committees,  numerous  elected  officials — city 
clerk,  city  attorney,  treasurer,  auditor,  comptroller,  in- 
numerable boards  and  commissions — public  works, 
health,  parks,  board  of  police,  and  fire  commissioners, 
board  of  estimates,  library  board,  sinking  fund  com- 
mission, as  well  as  a  city  engineer,  marshal,  commis- 
sioner of  streets,  superintendent  of  the  poor,  and  a 
score  or  more  other  subordinate  appointive  or  elective 
officials,  all  independent  and  jealous  of  each  other, 
with  overlapping  jurisdiction  and  conflicting  author- 
ity— in  place  of  this  "  complicated,  friction-bearing, 
red-tape-wrapped  system,"  is  substituted  government 
by  a  single  board.  The  entire  administration  of  the 
city  government  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  single 
board  composed,  as  a  rule,  of  three  or  five,  and  so  far 
never  more  than  nine,  well-known  men. 

These  men  are  responsible  for  all  branches  of  the 
administration.  They  meet  in  conference  on  city  af- 
fairs daily,  or  at  any  time  a  matter  of  public  or  admin- 
istrative importance  should  be  decided.  All  questions 
are  simply  and  finally  settled  by  a  majority  vote  of 
the  board.  The  heads  of  all  departments,  all  city  of- 
ficials, and  employees  of  the  city  are  directly  respon- 
sible to  them,  and  immediately  under  their  supervision 
and  control.  It  is  a  simple,  direct,  businesslike  way 
of  administering  the  business  affairs  of  the  city,  easy 
to  understand,  easy  to  operate — an  application  to  city 
administration  of  that  type  of  business  organization 


3° 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


which  has  been  so  common  and  so  successful  in  the 
field  of  commerce  and  industry.^ 

Simplicity  and  directness  beget  efficiency  in  the 
hands  of  competent  men.  Mayor  H.  B.  Rice,  of  the 
Houston  Commission,  one  of  the  oldest  commission- 
ers in  point  of  service,  having  been  inaugurated  in 
1905,^  in  an  address  a  few  years  since,^  showed  how  a 
simple  form  of  government  worked  out  in  practice : 

"  Here  is  one  of,  if  not  the  strongest  points  in  the 
commission  government.  In  the  city  of  Houston, 
with  a  majority  of  the  aldermen  always  in  session, 
business  of  the  people  can  be,  and  is,  attended  to  at 
a  moment's  notice.  To  show  the  practical  application 
of  this  system,  there  is  really  no  need  of  petition  to 
the  city  council  at  their  regular  weekly  meetings.  Any 
citizen,  or  citizens,  who  want  a  street  paved,  taxes  ad- 
justed, nuisances  abated,  etc.,  have  only  to  call  at  the 
mayor's  office  and  have  his  or  their  matters  promptly 
adjusted.  After  a  patient  hearing,  the  matter  is  de- 
cided by  the  council  in  presence  of  the  applicant.  .  .  . 

"  To  demonstrate,  I  will  cite  an  incident  that  hap- 
pened several  months  ago.  A  gentleman,  a  non- 
resident of  Houston,  whose  home  was  in  a  Western 
state,  owned  some  property  in  our  city,  and  the  prop- 
erty had  been  recently  taken  into  the  city  limits.  In- 
vestigating his  assessment,  he  found  that  his  property 
had  been  placed  at  a  much  higher  valuation  than  that 

1  See  Bulletin  of  the  University  Extension  Bureau,  University  of 
Wisconsin. 

*  Mayor  Rice  was  renominated,  March,  191 1. 
'  At  Charlotte,  N.  C,  November  18,  1908. 


FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES 


31 


of  his  neighbors.  Being  a  stranger,  he  called  upon 
one  of  Houston's  leading  attorneys  and  asked  his  ad- 
vice how  to  proceed  for  relief.  The  attorney  sug- 
gested that  they  step  over  to  the  mayor's  office  and 
have  the  matter  corrected.  The  owner  of  the  land 
thought  it  would  be  wiser  for  the  lawyer  to  get  some 
of  his  friends  to  sign  a  petition  to  the  council,  so  that 
it  would  have  some  weight  with  the  authorities.  The 
attorney  replied  that  this  mode  of  procedure  was  en- 
tirely unnecessary,  as  Houston  now  had  a  business 
government.  They  called  at  my  office,  stated  their 
mission,  I  sent  for  the  tax  collector,  and  in  an  hour 
the  stranger  had  his  matter  adjusted  and  his  tax  re- 
ceipt in  his  pocket." 

Such  a  result  would  not  be  possible  under  the  com- 
plicated system  of  checks  and  balances  based  on  a 
more  or  less,  and  usually  less,  accurately  determined 
division  of  powers.  The  commission  form  of  mu- 
nicipal government  tends,  if  properly  administered,  to 
eliminate  the  middleman,  whether  the  lawyer,  the  lob- 
byist, or  the  professional  politician,  who,  under  the  old 
order,  and  still  in  the  large  number  of  places,  is  a 
necessity.  We  have  the  middleman  of  these  several 
classes  now  because  we  need  at  hand  some  one  who 
**  knows  the  ropes,"  some  one  who  knows  how  to  un- 
ravel the  red  tape  and  the  complications  in  the  interest 
of  getting  things  done. 

Direct  and  easy  nomination  and  election  of  candi- 
dates constitute  another  and  important  phase  of  the 
simplicity  of  the  new  system. 

In  place  of  a  complicated  machinery  of  party  nom- 


32 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


inations  which  only  the  skilled  mechanic,  the  profes- 
sional politician,  as  he  is  called  in  this  connection, 
really  knows  how  to  manipulate,  the  commission  gov- 
ernment provides  for  the  simplest  form  of  direct 
nominations.  In  Des  Moines,  for  example,  two  elec- 
tions are  held.  At  the  preliminary  one,  or  primary, 
any  duly  qualified  elector  can  become  a  candidate  for 
the  nomination  for  mayor  or  councilman  through  fil- 
ing a  petition  containing  the  signatures  of  twenty-five 
qualified  electors.  The  names  of  the  two  candidates 
for  mayor  receiving  the  highest  number  of  votes  go 
to  final  official  ballot  and  the  names  of  the  eight  can- 
didates for  commissioner  receiving  the  highest  votes 
go  on  the  final  ofificial  ballot. 

In  the  1 910  election  in  Des  Moines  there  were 
twenty- four  candidates  for  the  two  sets  of  offices,  and 
12,500  were  cast  at  the  first  or  primary  election.  The 
result  was  as  follows : 

For  Mayor 

Hanna 3,i43* 

Mathis 4>879 

For  Councilmen 

Ash 6,870 

Brereton 5,090 

Brigham 3,338 

Hamery 3,736 

MacVicar 6,716 

Needham 3,554 

Roe 6,346 

Schramm 4)582 

*  Elected. 


FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES  33 

At  the  second,  or  final,  election,  the  candidates  re- 
ceiving majority  votes  are  elected.  In  the  Des  Moines 
election  in  question  the  voting  resulted  as  follows :  ^ 

For  Mayor 

Hanna 7.525* 

Mathis 7.509 

For  Councilmen 

Ash 8,829* 

Brereton 5.429 

Brigham 4.284 

Hamery 5,947 

MacVicar 9,006* 

Needham 5.97^ 

Roe 8,167* 

Schramm 7,37i* 

*  Elected. 

Berkeley,  California,  has  in  its  charter  devised  a 
scheme  of  elections  similar  to  the  French  system  of 
double  elections.  It  provides  that  all  nominations  to 
elective  offices  shall  be  made  by  petition  only,  by  filing 
with  the  city  clerk  twenty-five  certificates  of  nomina- 
tion, each  signed  by  one  voter  for  each  office  to  be  filled. 
There  is  no  limit  to  the  number  of  candidates  for  any 
given  office.  If,  at  the  regular  election,  any  office  is 
not  filled  by  a  majority  vote,  then  a  second  election 
must  be  held  three  weeks  later.  At  the  first  election 
the  candidate  receiving  the  highest  number  of  votes 

1  For  the  details  of  the  Des  Moines  plan,  see  the  Des  Moines 
Charter,  and  the  chapter  on  Tests  of  the  Double  Election  Plan  in 
John  J.  Hamilton's  "Dethronement  of  the  City  Boss." 


34       CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

for  the  several  offices  in  question  shall  be  deemed 
elected,  provided  that  number  is  "  greater  than  one 
half  the  number  of  ballots  cast  at  such  election."  In 
case  of  any  nonelections,  then,  so  far  as  unfilled  of- 
fices are  concerned,  the  regular  election  becomes  a 
primary,  and  the  two  candidates  who  received  the 
highest  number  of  votes  (or  three  in  case  of  a  tie) 
become  the  nominees  to  be  voted  for  at  the  second 
election. 

At  the  first  election  (May  i,  1909)  under  the  new 
charter,  there  were  four  candidates  for  mayor,  four 
for  auditor,  twenty-nine  for  councilmen,  and  four 
school  directors  to  be  elected.  The  large  number  of 
candidates  produced  some  confusion  in  the  minds  of 
the  voters  at  first;  but  it  was  soon  seen  that  most  of 
them  were  negligible  and  could  be  easily  eliminated. 
In  the  words  of  a  local  observer :  "  There  were  ten 
candidates  for  councilmen  and  ten  for  school  directors 
that  were  to  be  taken  seriously.  This  has  been  the 
"first  occasion  in  years  when  there  was  any  incentive 
to  go  to  the  polls  at  a  local  election,  the  first  time 
there  was  any  real  choice  to  be  made;  and  this  was 
the  first  time,  too,  that  there  were  candidates  worth 
voting  for.  \''ery  satisfactory  candidates  had  been 
brought  out  by  the  non-partisan  nomination.  The 
first  election  was  most  interesting,  about  70  per  cent 
of  the  entitled  voters  participating." 

A  very  strong  fight  was  put  up  by  the  old  regime 
to  retain  control,  and  a  popular  political  leader  was 
nominated  for  mayor — a  strong  vote-getter;  but  the 
"  Good  Government "  people  were  well  organized  and 


FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES  35 

did  not  allow  themselves  to  be  deluded.  At  the  last 
moment  a  partisan  call  to  stand  by  the  theretofore 
dominant  party  as  against  any  non-partisan  ticket,  a 
cry  that  had  always  worked  successfully  under  old 
methods  of  nomination,  was  made,  but  the  result  of 
the  election  was  a  decided  victory  for  the  "  Good  Gov- 
ernment "  forces,  its  candidate  for  rriayor  receiving  a 
clear  majority  over  all  other  candidates,  as  did  its  can- 
didate for  auditor,  and  they  were  accordingly  declared 
elected.  Among  the  highest  eight  candidates  for  coun- 
cilmen,  the  first  four  were  "  Good  Government "  can- 
didates; and  it  is  doubtful  whether  more  than  one  of 
the  remaining  three  could  be  called  political  candidates 
in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term.  At  the  sec- 
ond election,  the  "  Good  Government "  forces  were 
again  completely  successful. 

Colorado  Springs,  which  adopted  the  main  ideas 
of  the  commission  form  of  government,  followed 
Berkeley's  lead  in  substituting  second  elections  for 
direct  primaries.  All  the  councilmen  were  elected  at 
the  first  election;  but  it  required  a  second  election  to 
determine  the  choice  for  mayor. 

Grand  Junction  adopted  a  charter,  the  declared  in- 
tent and  purpose  of  which  is  "  to  establish  a  free  and 
independent  city,  and  to  restore  to  and  vest  in  the 
people  of  the  city,  so  far  as  the  constitution  of  the 
state  will  permit,  their  natural,  inherent,  and  inalien- 
able right  of  local  self-government,  with  all  its  powers, 
duties,  and  responsibilities."  The  charter  provided 
for  the  preferential  system  of  voting  at  popular  elec- 
tions.   In  place  of  the  Berkeley- Colorado  Springs  plan, 


36 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 


the  Grand  Junction  charter  provides  for  a  complete 
unification  of  primaries  and  elections  at  each  election, 
and  for  the  choice  of  candidates  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  their  respective  supporters.  In  the  words 
of  the  official  summary,  "  the  preferential  system  of 
voting  has  been  established  in  lieu  of  direct  primaries 
or  of  second  elections,  thus  securing  a  unique  and  ac- 
curate expression  of  the  public  will  at  the  polls  with 
the  minimum  of  cost  and  effort."  The  innovation  is 
a  form  of  proportional  representation  now  widely  used 
in  Australia.  So  far  as  I  am  informed,  it  has  never 
been  adopted  in  the  United  States,  except  possibly  in 
a  modified  way  in  the  State  of  Idaho. 

The  practical  working  out  of  the  Grand  Junction 
preferential  system  was  shown  at  the  election  held 
November  2,  1909: 

Total  number  of  ballots  cast i»847 

Necessary  to  a  choice 924 

Result  of  the  Votes  for  Mayor 


1st 
Choice 

2d 

Choice 

Addition- 
al Choice 

Combined 

istsand 

2ds 

Combined 

ists,    2ds, 

add'ls 

D.  W.  Aupperle 

*W.  H.  Bannister 

N.  A.  Lough 

(Out  on  second.) 

*E.  B.  Lutes 

(Out  on  first.) 

E.  M.  Slocomb 

Thomas  H.  Todd 

(Elected.) 

465 

603 

99 

41 

229 
362 

143 

93 

231 

114 

357 
293 

145 

43 
328 

88 

326 
396 

608 
696 

330 

(155) 

586 
655 

753 

739 

(658) 
(243) 

912 
1,051 

1,799 

1,231 

1,326 

FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES 


37 


The  starred  men  were  the  anticharter  and  minor- 
ity candidates;  the  others  the  procharter  and  majority 
candidates.  There  being  no  majority  in  first  choices, 
the  low  man,  Lutes,  was  dropped,  and  firsts  and  sec- 
onds were  added  together.  Then  the  leading  candi- 
date, provided  he  had  a  majority,  would  have  won. 
There  being  no  majority  by  combined  firsts  and  sec- 
onds, the  low  man.  Lough,  was  dropped,  and  first, 
second,  and  additional  choices  were  added  together, 
and  Todd,  the  candidate  then  leading,  won.  Under 
the  usual  system,  the  minority  would  have  beaten  the 
majority  and  elected  Bannister.  Prof.  Lewis  J.  John- 
son, in  his  pamphlet  describing  his  proposed  charter 
for  the  city  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  which  contains  a 
provision  for  preferential  voting,  points  out  that 
under  the  Berkeley  system  a  second  election  would 
have  been  held  to  determine  between  Aupperle  and 
Bannister,  neither  of  whom  had  a  majority  of  all  the 
votes  behind  them. 

Another  phase  of  the  simplicity  of  the  commission 
form  of  city  government  is  what  has  come  to  be  popu- 
larly known  as  the  "  Short  Ballot."  As  Richard  W. 
Montague,  in  his  argument  for  the  adoption  of  the 
commission  form  in  Portland,  Ore.,  forcefully  de- 
clared :  "  Experience  has  shown  that  it  is  utterly  hope- 
less to  look  for  good  results  zuhen  officials  are  elected 
by  platoons,  and  especially  is  this  true  in  a  large  city, 
where  so  very  many  excellent  citizens  are  entirely  un- 
known to  one  another.  And  when  the  office  is  one 
(like  that  of  councilman)  which  has  fallen  into  a  cer- 
tain disrepute,  so  that  high-minded  men  are  not  eager 


38        CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

for  it,  and  it  brings  no  reputation  and  little  pay,  the 
result  is  that  there  is  simply  no  selection  made  by  the 
people  at  all,  but  the  office  goes  to  the  self-seeker,  ex- 
cept where  the  outcome  is  tempered  by  luck  or  by 
some  person  (like  our  sometime  fellow-citizen.  Larry 
Sullivan)  presuming  a  little  too  far  on  the  public  in- 
difference. 

"  Put  the  question  to  yourself.  You  know  who  is 
the  present  mayor,  and  the  last  one;  like  enough  you 
know  who  are  the  candidates  for  the  next  mayor. 
But  do  you  know  who  were  the  members  of  the  last 
council  ?  Of  the  present  council  ?  Do  you  even  know 
who  are  the  retiring  members  of  the  present  council,  or 
the  candidates  for  their  places  ?  I  trow  not.  Nobody 
knows,  offhand,  anyway,  and  it  would  not  be  a  sinful 
exaggeration  to  say  that  nobody  cares  much,  except 
the  industrious  gentlemen  who  are  hunting  the  jobs. 
Under  the  proposed  charter  for  Portland,  at  each 
election  after  the  first  there  will  be  only  three  coun- 
cilmen  and  a  mayor  to  elect.  Under  the  Des  Moines 
plan  of  eliminating  the  multitude  of  candidates  at  the 
primaries,  there  will  be  at  the  election  only  two  candi- 
dates for  each  place  to  select  from.  The  most  indif- 
ferent of  citizens  ought  to  be  able  to  exert  himself  that 
far.  The  power  and  responsibilities  which  are  now 
diffused  among  the  mayor,  fifteen  councilmen,  ten 
members  of  the  executive  board,  and  four  members 
of  the  water  board  in  this  city  will  be  concentrated  in 
a  small  and  compact  body  of  seven  members,  which 
can  never  deny  the  power  nor  shirk  the  responsibility. 
There  will  be  no  room  for  doubt  nor  question  whq  is 


FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES 


39 


to  blame  for  doing  or  not  doing  anything.  It  will  be 
the  council.  There  will  be  no  ground  for  recrimina- 
tion about  delays  or  debates  about  which  body  has  the 
power.  There  will  be  no  shuffling  of  work  back  and 
forth  from  one  body  to  another,  with  the  attendant 
delays  and  fallings  by  the  wayside.  Authority  is 
lodged  in  one  place.  The  unfit  and  the  unfaithful  will 
inevitably  find  their  every  act  exposed  in  the  pitiless 
light  of  publicity.  Their  deeds  will  be  all  known  and 
accounted  for.  On  the  other  hand,  a  group  of  capable 
and  faithful  men  could  win  a  notable  reputation  and 
perform  for  the  city  a  priceless  service." 

As  defined  by  the  Short  Ballot  Organization,  the 
dangerously  great  power  of  politicians  in  our  country 
is  not  due  to  any  peculiar  civic  indifference  of  the 
people,  but  rests  on  the  fact  that  we  are  living  under 
a  form  of  democracy  that  is  so  unworkable  as  to  con- 
stitute in  practice  a  pseudo-democracy.  It  is  unwork- 
able because 

First — It  submits  to  popular  election  offices  which 
are  too  unimportant  to  attract  (or  deserve)  public  at- 
tention, and, 

Second — It  submits  to  popular  election  so  many 
offices  at  one  time  that  many  of  them  are  inevitably 
crowded  out  from  proper  public  attention,  and. 

Third — It  submits  to  popular  election  so  many  of- 
fices at  one  time  that  the  business  of  making  up  the 
elaborate  tickets  necessary  at  every  election  makes  the 
political  machine  an  indispensable  instrument  in  elec- 
toral action. 

Many  officials,  therefore,  are  elected  without  ade- 
4 


40       CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

quate  public  scrutiny,  and  owe  their  selection  not  to 
the  people,  but  to  the  makers  of  the  party  ticket,  who 
thus  acquire  an  influence  that  is  capable  of  great  abuse. 

The  Short  Ballot  principle  is — 

First — That  only  those  offices  should  be  elective 
which  are  important  enough  to  attract  (and  deserve) 
public  examination. 

Second — That  very  few  offices  should  be  filled  by 
election  at  one  time,  so  as  to  permit  adequate  and  un- 
confused  public  examination  of  the  candidates. 

Obedience  to  these  fundamental  principles  explains 
the  comparative  success  of  democratic  government  in 
the  cities  of  Great  Britain  and  other  foreign  democra- 
cies, as  well  as  in  Galveston,  Des  Moines,  and  other 
American  cities  that  are  governed  by  "  commissions."  ^ 

In  commenting  on  these  principles  which  must  hp 
regarded  as  fundamental,  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin leaflet,  already  referred  to,  says  that  it  is  vital  that 
candidates  for  public  office  must  be  conspicuous.  The 
people  must  know  the  candidates,  or  they  can  never 
be  in  actual  control  of  the  situation,  but  simply  go 
through  the  motions  of  controlling.  The  small  offices 
must  go  off  the  ballot  and  either  be  appointed,  or  they 
must  be  increased  in  real  public  importance,  by  added 
powers,  until  they  rise  into  such  eminence  as  to  be 
visible  to  all  the  people.  "  Governmental  power 
should  be  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a  very  few 
men,  who  would  be  so  conspicuous  that  no  citizen 
could  help  knowing  all  about  them,  and  the  elections 

*  See  the  publications  of  the  Short  Ballot  Organization   (383 
Fourth  Avenue,  New  York).  


FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES 


41 


should  not  come  frequently,"  says  Theodore  Roose- 
velt. 

City  government  by  commission  will  undoubtedly 
facilitate  the  election  of  a  higher  type  of  men,  for 
American  municipal  experience  plainly  demonstrates 
that  small  bodies  with  large  powers  attract  a  better 
class  of  men  than  large  bodies  with  small  powers. 
This  is  generally  conceded  alike  by  students  and  prac- 
tical politicians.  Men  are  willing  to  assume  respon- 
sibility, provided  they  are  given  a  free  hand  and  may 
hope  to  receive  the  merit  which  service  well  per- 
formed is  due.  Under  the  commission  plan,  each  com- 
missioner has  a  large  measure  of  power  and  respon- 
sibility. He  feels  that  he  has  all  the  means  necessary 
to  the  execution  of  his  trust.  This  has  not  been  the 
case  under  the  common  council  system.  Councilmen 
and  aldermen,  as  a  rule,  have  been  men  of  small  capac- 
ity. Lists  of  councilmen  and  aldermen  in  American 
cities  have  been  published  which  show  most  of  them 
to  have  little  or  no  property  and  no  describable  means 
of  support.  In  other  words,  they  have  been  persons 
who  have  given  no  evidence  of  a  capacity  to  success- 
fully administer  the  affairs  of  a  great  city,  and,  more- 
over, experience  has  shown  them,  for  these  very 
reasons,  to  be  peculiarly  susceptible  to  corrupt  and  de- 
basing influences. 

On  the  other  hand,  "if  it  be  clearly  understood," 
says  President  Eliot,  "  that  successful  men  of  proved 
capacity  are  needed  ^  and  wanted  for  the  city's  service, 

*  "City  Government  by  Fewer  Men,"  in   The  World's   Work, 
October,  1907. 


42 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 


able  men  will  be  attracted  to  the  service  just  because 
the  standard  of  the  service  is  set  high.  There  are 
always  plenty  of  good  candidates  for  offices  with 
which  go  power,  responsibility,  and  public  considera- 
tion. To  an  office  which  requires  for  the  proper  dis- 
charge of  its  duties  a  high  degree  of  intelligence  and 
public  spirit,  public-spirited  men,  young  and  old,  will 
aspire.  Elderly  men  who  have  already  succeeded  in 
their  business  and  become  pecuniarily  independent  will 
take  office  because  they  find  in  public  duties  a  new  in- 
terest and  a  new  incentive  to  exertion.  Younger  men 
of  high  capacity  will  take  office,  because  they  believe 
that  in  public  office  they  will  have  an  opportunity  to 
show  to  advantage  what  their  quality  is,  and  that  this 
demonstration  will  be  useful  to  them  in  other  large 
affairs,  either  public  or  private.  That  aldermen  and 
common  councilmen  have  fallen  into  contempt  is  a 
grave  misfortune;  for  that  very  fact  makes  it  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  recruit  those  bodies  with  desirable 
citizens,  except,  indeed,  in  an  occasional  and  spas- 
modic way.  Large  school  committees,  which  were 
until  lately  the  rule  in  American  cities,  fell  into  dis- 
repute because  election  to  them  came  to  be  considered 
a  first  step  for  aspiring  politicians.  .  .  .  Wherever  an 
office  is  aggrandized,  the  man  of  capacity  who  really 
fills  the  office  will  set  a  new  standard  of  efficient  work 
for  the  office ;  hence  the  economy  of  consolidations  in 
financial,  manufacturing,  and  transportation  enter- 
prises. The  enlarging  of  units  of  organization  is  a 
world-wide  tendency  in  all  sorts  of  business;  so  that 
the  instances  here  suggested  in  municipal  government 


FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES  43 

are  only  another  group  of  instances  in  a  stream  of 
tendencies.  Larger  functions  in  fewer  hands  will 
command  the  services  of  better  men — of  men  honest, 
efficient,  and  public-spirited." 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE    GALVESTON    PLAN  ^ 

The  recent  growth  in  popularity  of  the  commis- 
sion system  of  city  government  is  no  doubt  the  off- 
spring of  a  more  or  less  widespread  dissatisfaction 
with  the  complexity  of  contemporary  American  mu- 
nicipal administration.  Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem, 
however,  this  curious  system,  which  students  of  com- 
parative politics  know  as  the  "  American  type  "  of 
city  government,  with  its  division  of  powers,  its  dif- 
fusion of  responsibility,  and  its  bewildering  mechan- 
ism of  checks  and  balances,  has  evolved  logically  from 
the  crude  framework  of  local  government  applied  to 
the  colonial  boroughs  by  the  British  authorities.  This 
system,  consisting  of  a  mayor  and  a  small  council,  the 
former  with  no  special  executive  functions,  no  veto 
power,  and  no  right  of  making  appointments  to  of- 
fice, has  been  maintained  by  the  English  cities  down 
to  the  present  day;  and  to  its  very  simplicity  much  of 
the  efficiency  which  characterizes  British  municipal 
administration  must,  without  doubt,  be  attributed. 

*  This  chapter  is  the  paper  on  "The  Galveston  Plan  of  City  Gov- 
ernment," read  at  the  Providence  meeting  of  the  National  Munici- 
pal League  (1907)  by  William  Bennett  Munro,  Ph.D.,  Assistant 
Professor  of  Government  in  Harvard  University. 

44 


THE   GALVESTON   PLAN  45 

After  the  American  Revolution,  however,  and  es- 
pecially after  the  adoption  of  the  federal  Constitution, 
the  system  of  municipal  government,  as  transplanted 
to  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  underwent  a  gradual  but 
very  important  change;  for  the  influence  of  the  "  fed- 
eral analogy "  dominated  decisively  the  course  of 
organic  development  in  all  the  areas  of  local  adminis- 
tration. A  study  of  the  civic  charters  granted  at  or 
about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  will,  in 
almost  every  case,  disclose  the  desire  of  municipalities 
to  copy  at  every  point  the  complex  mechanism  of  the 
federal  government.  The  mayor  had  come  to  be  an 
independent  executive  ofHcer,  with  a  power  of  veto 
over  local  legislation,  with  the  right  of  appointment 
subject  to  confirmation,  and  with  a  variety  of  other 
administrative  prerogatives  which  the  lapse  of  a  cen- 
tury has  greatly  augmented.  The  municipal  council 
has  likewise  become  bicameral,  apparently  for  no  good 
reason  save  that  the  demands  of  analogy  had  seemed 
so  to  dictate.  In  short,  it  seems  to  have  been  assumed 
that  a  framework  of  government  devised  to  reconcile 
the  jarring  interests  of  a  dozen  independent  states 
would  bear  reproduction  in  miniature,  and  would 
prove  efficient  in  application  to  comparatively  small 
urban  units  of  a  thoroughly  homogeneous  character. 
For  three  quarters  of  a  century  the  cities  of  the 
United  States  have  expended  much  political  energy  in 
attempting  to  patch  an  administrative  garment  which 
was  not  devised  with  an  eye  to  their  direct  require- 
ments. It  may  be  doubted  whether  they  have  suc- 
ceeded in  doing  more  than  to  make  the  misfit  more  pro- 


46       CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

nounced.  They  have  been  weighted  down  with  an 
administrative  organization  which  has  sacrificed  the 
highly  essential  qualities  of  efficiency  and  promptness 
in  action  to  a  blind  adherence  to  the  principle  of 
"  division  of  powers,"  heedless  of  the  fact  that  the 
proper  governance  of  a  municipality  makes  no  urgent 
demands  whatever  for  any  strict  recognition  of  this 
principle.  Steering  wide  of  centralization  of  powers 
they  have,  however,  floundered  into  the  slough  of  a 
hopelessly  divided  jurisdiction,  with  its  unfortunate 
accompaniment  of  diffused  responsibility. 

A  logical  result  of  all  this  has  been  a  reaction 
against  the  very  cumbrousness  of  municipal  machin- 
ery— a  reaction  which  has  manifested  itself  in  some 
cities  by  the  abolition  of  bicameral  councils  and  the 
substitution  of  single  elective  bodies.  In  other  cases 
the  dominant  influence  in  civic  administration  has 
been  transferred  to  the  mayor,  the  local  legislative  au- 
thority being  thus  shorn  of  nearly  all  its  jurisdiction. 
Even  more  frequently  the  delicate  adjustment  of 
powers  has  been  ruthlessly  disturbed  by  the  direct  in- 
tervention of  state  authorities  and  the  assumption  of 
purely  municipal  functions  by  state  boards.  This 
movement  toward  definiteness  in  the  location  of  re- 
sponsibility has  proceeded  slowly,  but  none  the  less 
effectively,  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  as 
may  be  readily  seen  by  anyone  who  chooses  to  study 
the  history  of  municipal  organization  in  cities  like 
Boston  or  New  York.  The  system  of  "  government 
by  commission  "  must,  therefore,  be  regarded,  not  as 
a  new  experiment  successfully  conducted  by  a   few 


THE   GALVESTON   PLAN 


47 


scattered  cities,  but  as  the  climax  of  a  well-defined 
movement,  from  the  influence  of  which  hardly  a  sin- 
gle large  city  in  the  country  has  been  entirely  exempt. 
Galveston,  as  is  well  known,  was  the  first  Ameri- 
can city  to  give  the  system  of  "  government  by  com- 
mission "  a  trial.  The  Texan  city,  having  been  called 
upon  to  pass  through  the  dark  waters  of  affliction, 
found  itself,  in  1900,  face  to  face  with  practical  bank- 
ruptcy. Under  the  old  system  of  government  by  a 
mayor  and  sixteen  aldermen,  the  finances  of  the  mu- 
nicipality had  been  badly  mismanaged  and  the  author- 
ities had  fallen  into  the  disastrous  practice  of  bonding 
the  city  to  provide  for  annual  deficits.  In  less  than 
twenty  years  nearly  three  millions  of  debt  had  been 
accumulated  in  this  way  alone.  The  enormous  new 
demands  upon  the  civic  treasury  presented  by  the 
calamity  in  1900  brought  matters  to  such  a  crisis  that 
the  Texan  Legislature  found  itself  called  upon  by  the 
business  men  of  Galveston  to  take  heroic  measures  for 
dealing  with  the  financial  problem.  The  old  munici- 
pal framework  was  abolished  root  and  branch,  and  by 
a  new  charter,  granted  in  1901,  the  administration  of 
the  city  was  intrusted  to  five  commissioners,  three  of 
whom  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor  and  two 
elected  by  the  citizens  of  Galveston.  Before  long, 
however,  the  constitutionality  of  the  charter  was 
called  into  question,  and  the  Supreme  Court  of  Texas 
decided  that  certain  functions  which  the  commission- 
ers had  been  authorized  to  assume  could  not  be  exer- 
cised except  by  elective  officers.  In  March,  1903, 
therefore,   the   Legislature   was   appealed   to    for   an 


48       CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

amendment  to  the  charter  making  all  the  commission- 
ers elective,  and  the  five  original  commissioners  were 
forthwith  indorsed  by  the  voters  at  the  polls.  The 
Galveston  charter,  as  amended  in  1903,  provides  for 
the  popular  election,  every  two  years,  of  five  commis- 
sioners, one  of  whom  is  given  the  title  of  mayor-presi- 
dent. All  are  elected  at  large.  The  mayor-president 
is  presiding  officer  of  the  commission,  but  otherwise 
has  no  special  powers.  By  a  majority  vote  of  the  five 
commissioners  all  municipal  ordinances  are  passed, 
and  all  appropriations  are  voted,  the  mayor-president 
having  no  right  to  veto  either  absolute  or  qualified. 
The  commissioners  likewise,  by  majority  vote,  appor- 
tion among  themselves  the  headships  of  the  four  main 
departments  of  civic  administration,  namely,  finance 
and  revenue,  waterworks  and  sewerage,  police  and  fire 
protection,  and  streets  and  public  property ;  the  mayor- 
president  having  no  special  department,  but  exercising 
a  general  coordinating  influence  over  all.  A  single 
commissioner  is,  therefore,  immediately  responsible 
for  the  administration  of  each  department.  The  com- 
mission as  a  whole  draws  up  and  passes  the  annual 
budget,  awards  all  contracts,  and  makes  all  important 
appointments.  Minor  appointments  are  made  by  the 
individual  commissioners,  each  in  his  own  special  de- 
partment. There  is  throughout  a  complete  centraliza- 
tion of  all  powers,  legislative  and  administrative,  and 
a  very  definite  location  of  all  responsibility. 

No  one  who  has  made  any  impartial  attempt  to 
follow  the  work  of  the  Galveston  commission  during 
the  last  six  years  will  venture  to  gainsay  its  very  strik- 


THE   GALVESTON   PLAN 


49 


ing  success.  The  financial  condition  of  the  city  has 
been  most  decidedly  improved;  all  the  municipal  serv- 
ices have  been  brought  to  a  much  higher  point  of 
efficiency;  a  better  grade  of  citizens  has  been  found 
willing  to  seek  and  to  accept  civic  office ;  and  the  gen- 
eral tone  of  municipal  administration  has  been  very 
noticeably  raised.  The  commissioners  present,  in 
their  reports,  such  a  convincing  array  of  facts  that  it 
would  be  idle  to  question  the  success  of  the  new 
regime.  This  success  has  been  attributable  in  general 
to  three  or  four  canons  of  policy,  from  which  the 
commissioners  have  not  swerved  during  the  last  five 
years,  and  which  may  be  summed  up  as  ( i )  the  use 
of  approved  business  methods  in  civic  financing;  (2) 
the  entire  elimination  of  all  leakages  in  expenditures; 
(3)  the  making  of  all  appointments  on  the  basis  of 
individual  efficiency;  and  (4)  the  strict  accountability 
of  each  commissioner  for  the  ongoings  of  his  own  de- 
partment. All  the  improvements  of  the  last  half 
decade  in  the  Texan  city  can  be  attributed,  substan- 
tially, to  the  fact  that  the  new  system  of  government 
has  rendered  strict  adherence  to  these  fundamental 
rules  of  sound  municipal  administration  possible  and 
even  imperative.^ 

It  is  not  necessary  to  speak  in  any  detail  of  specific 
advances  made  in  municipal  administration  by  Gal- 
veston under  the  system  of  government  by  commis- 
sion. It  is  enough  that  these  were  readily  noted  by 
neighboring  Texan  cities,  and  that  the  latter  soon  be- 

^  See  also  Chapter  XX. 


so 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 


stirred  themselves  to  the  task  of  inaugurating  a  simi- 
lar framework  of  administration. 

Despite  a  general  impression  that  the  commission 
system  of  local  administration  is  a  novelty  in  Ameri- 
can government,  the  principle  involved  is  by  no  means 
new  in  the  United  States.  It  is  in  almost  no  impor- 
tant respect  different  from  the  New  England  system 
of  town  government  by  a  board  of  selectmen,  who, 
with  their  chairman,  assume  and  concentrate  in  them- 
selves all  administrative  and  legislative  functions  from 
one  annual  election  until  the  next.  There  are  many 
New  England  "  towns,"  with  populations  quite  large 
enough  to  entitle  them  to  rank  as  cities,  which  have, 
for  more  than  a  century,  maintained  what  is  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  a  system  of  government  by  com- 
mission. Their  selectmen,  who  are  chosen  by  the 
people  at  large,  represent  in  their  jurisdiction  a  com- 
plete fusion  of  local  power  and  responsibility.  In 
every  state  of  the  Union,  moreover  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  Louisiana  and  Rhode  Island),  county  admin- 
istration has  been  vested  almost  wholly  in  the  hands 
of  an  elective  commission.  The  use  of  the  term 
"  commission  "  has  misled  many  into  overlooking  a 
system  with  which  they  have  been  long  familiar  under 
a  different  designation.  American  cities  have  had 
occasion,  no  doubt,  to  become  familiar  with  "  com- 
missions," but  with  commissions  of  a  very  different 
sort. 

No  aspect  of  the  general  problem  of  municipal  re- 
form has  received  more  attention  in  the  press  and  on 
the  platform  during  the  last  year  than  the  merits  and 


THE   GALVESTON   PLAN 


SI 


defects  of  the  commission  plan.  In  the  main,  how- 
ever, these  discussions  have  dwelt  largely  upon  the 
advantages  of  the  system,  many  of  which  are  almost 
too  obvious  to  require  emphasis.  The  defects,  on  the 
other  hand,  do  not  appear  on  the  surface  so  plainly, 
though  a  closer  examination  will  disclose  that  the  sys- 
tem of  government  by  commission,  if  generally  ap- 
plied to  American  cities  under  present  conditions, 
would  in  all  probability  encounter  important  objec- 
tions which  no  real  friend  of  permanent  municipal 
reform  ought  to  treat  lightly.  Some  of  these  relative 
merits  and  defects  may  be  briefly  noticed,  so  far  as 
it  may  be  accounted  safe  to  generalize  in  the  light  of 
American  municipal  experience. 

The  cardinal  advantage  of  the  system  is  that  it 
affords  definite  hope  of  putting  an  end  to  the  intoler- 
able decentralization  of  responsibility  which  now  char- 
acterizes American  civic  administration.  By  concen- 
trating powers  and  focusing  public  attention  upon  a 
narrow  area  it  will  render  more  effective  the  scrutiny 
which  voters  may  apply  to  the  conduct  of  men  in  pub- 
lic office.  If  the  system  does  not  guarantee  efficient 
administration,  it  at  least  promises  to  disclose  where 
the  blame  for  inefficiency  should  be  made  to  fall.  It 
will  undoubtedly  facilitate  the  election  of  a  higher 
type  of  men,  for  American  municipal  experience  has 
plainly  demonstrated  that  small  bodies  with  large 
powers  attract  a  better  class  of  citizens  than  large 
bodies  with  restricted  jurisdiction.  The  reduction  in 
numbers  of  the  school  boards  of  St.  Louis,  Boston, 
and  other  large  cities  has  served  to  show  the  truth 


52        CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

of  this  aphorism  in  conclusive  fashion.  Even  though 
party  organizations  may  continue  to  dictate  the  nom- 
ination of  commissioners,  as  they  now  do  that  of 
councilmen,  these  organizations  will  no  longer  be 
placed  under  pressure  to  give  representation  to  every 
sectional,  racial,  and  religious  interest  at  the  cost  of 
placing  inferior  men  in  candidacy.  That  government 
by  commission  will  eliminate  partisan  candidatures  is 
something  scarcely  to  be  hoped  for;  but  there  is  good 
reason  to  believe  that  it  would  remove  from  party 
organizations  much  of  the  sinister  pressure  with  which 
these  have  now  to  contend. 

Again,  it  is  well  known  that  municipal  corruption 
nowadays  arises  as  frequently  from  the  power  of  mu- 
nicipal authorities  to  thwart  the  meritorious  plans  of 
public-service  corporations  as  from  their  power  to 
forward  reprehensible  projects.  If  the  present  sys- 
tem of  checks  and  balances  puts  a  restriction  upon  the 
ill-considered  granting  away  of  privileges,  it  none  the 
less  puts  a  premium  upon  the  withholding  of  rights 
which  should,  in  the  public  interest,  be  granted  with- 
out hesitation.  It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  the 
chances  of  obtaining  a  municipal  franchise  at  the 
present  time  in  any  large  city  are  properly  propor- 
tioned to  the  merits  of  an  application  therefor.  A 
small  commission  would,  indeed,  simplify  the  task  of 
dealing  with  civic  franchises  on  a  business  basis,  and, 
if  there  be  any  fear  that  the  unchecked  power  of  grant- 
ing municipal  franchises  is  a  jurisdiction  too  mo- 
mentous to  be  vested  in  the  hands  of  a  small  body, 
provision  may  be  made,  as  in  the  Des  Moines  charter, 


THE   GALVESTON   PLAN       •  53 

for  having  the  acts  of  the  commission  in  this  sphere 
subject  to  ratification  by  the  voters. 

Still  again,  as  we  are  frequently  reminded,  the 
work  of  administering  the  affairs  of  a  city  is  in  every 
essential  respect  akin  to  that  of  conducting  the  affairs 
of  a  private  business  corporation.  Now,  the  salient 
characteristic  of  sound  corporate  management  is  the 
centralization  of  powers  in  the  hands  of  a  small  board 
of  directors.  What,  we  are  asked,  would  be  thought 
of  a  business  corporation  which  intrusted  the  manage- 
ment of  its  interests  to  a  bicameral  board,  made  up 
of  classes  of  members  selected  in  dift'erent  ways, 
representing  different  interests,  possessing  separate 
jurisdictions,  and  designed  to  embody  a  system  of 
checks  and  balances?  Why  should  the  affairs  of  a 
municipality  demand  an  administrative  machinery  so 
much  more  complex  than  that  of  the  largest  private 
corporation?  There  is  danger,  however,  of  pressing 
this  point  too  far,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
analogy  between  the  w^ork  of  the  municipal  and  that 
of  the  private  corporation  is  by  no  means  perfect. 
The  city,  for  example,  enjoys  many  legal  privileges 
and  immunities  which  an  ordinary  business  corpora- 
tion does  not  possess.  It  is  not  legally  responsible  for 
the  torts  of  its  police  officers,  of  the  employees  of  its 
fire  department,  or  for  those  of  several  other  classes 
of  its  agents;  whereas  the  private  corporation  is  di- 
rectly liable  to  be  heavily  mulcted  for  the  negligence 
or  inefficiency  of  those  whom  it  takes  into  its  service. 
Furthermore,  in  determining  matters  of  policy,  the 
authorities   of  a  municipality  must   give   weight  to 


54       CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

many  considerations  of  social  well-being  which  the 
management  of  a  private  corporation  may  afford  to 
neglect.  It  must  be  admitted,  too,  that  administration 
by  a  board  of  directors  is  not  necessarily  synonymous 
with  integrity  and  efficiency.  One  need  not  go  far 
afield  to  find  instances  in  which  directors  have  been 
deficient  in  their  knowledge  of  affairs  immediately  in 
their  care,  or  in  which  they  have  personally  profited 
at  the  expense  of  those  interests  which  they  were 
chosen  to  guard.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be  said  with 
truth  that  there  is  plenty  of  room  for  the  infusion  of 
"  business  principles  "  into  civic  administration,  and 
the  analogy,  if  not  pushed  too  far,  has  much  force. 

The  system  of  government  by  commission  will 
serve  to  render  municipal  administration  more  prompt 
and  more  effective  in  action.  In  a  multitude  of  coun- 
selors there  may  be  wisdom,  but  there  is  also,  almost 
inevitably,  friction,  delay,  and  intriguery.  A  system 
of  division  of  powers  is  almost  certain  to  counterbal- 
ance what  it  gains  in  security  against  hasty  and  ar- 
bitrary action  by  what  it  loses  in  inability  to  cope  with 
problems  which  demand  prompt,  united,  and  uncom- 
promising attention.  In  local  administration,  prompt- 
ness and  efficiency  are  imperative ;  and  it  may  be  prop- 
erly urged  that,  in  order  to  secure  these  essential 
qualities,  a  municipality  is  justified  in  weakening  its 
organs  of  deliberation  and  in  assuming  a  reasonable 
amount  of  risk  that  concentrated  power  will  be  abused. 

There  are,  no  doubt,  many  incidental  advantages 
which  cities  may  reasonably  hope  to  secure  from  the 
introduction  of  the  commission  system,  and  to  these 


THE   GALVESTON   PLAN  55 

the  experience  of  Galveston  bears  abundant  testimony. 
Most  of  these,  however,  are  relative  to  the  existing 
conditions  in  particular  cities,  and  may  not,  therefore, 
be  dealt  with  in  general  terms. 

To  the  casual  student  the  defects  of  the  commis- 
sion system  are,  perhaps,  not  so  apparent  as  the  mer- 
its. They  exist,  nevertheless,  and  are  of  sufficient 
importance  to  demand  careful  and  judicious  consider- 
ation; for  the  cause  of  municipal  reform  may  receive 
permanent  injury  through  the  open  advocacy  by  its 
friends  of  any  plan  of  administration  which  has  not 
been  adequately  studied  in  the  light  of  conditions 
which  now  exist  or  are  likely  to  exist  in  American 
cities. 

The  most  common  objection  urged  in  the  public 
press  and  by  the  rank  and  file  of  municipal  politicians 
is  that  the  plan  is  un-American  and  undemocratic ;  that 
it  involves  a  radical  departure  from  American  tradi- 
tions of  local  seM-government  and  proposes  a  step  in 
the  direction  of  municipal  dictatorships.  This  objec- 
tion is  as  easy  to  raise  as  it  is  difficult  to  support.  The 
present  framework  of  municipal  administration,  with 
its  division  of  powers,  is  not  a  whit  more  traditionally 
"  American  "  than  is  the  New  England  town  system 
of  government  by  a  board  of  selectmen  with  no  divi- 
sion of  powers  whatever.  That  the  system  of  admin- 
istration by  a  small  body  of  men  tends  to  remove  con- 
trol "  away  from  the  people  "  is  an  assertion  which 
the  whole  history  of  local  government  in  the  United 
States  absolutely  refutes.  Indeed,  it  has  been  proven 
time  and  again  that  a  single  elective  officer  may,  in 
5 


56       CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

his  official  actions,  more  faithfully  reflect  public  opin^ 
ion  than  a  large  body  of  elected  representatives.  Much 
of  the  latent  and  unreasoning  prejudice  against  the 
new  plan  springs,  no  doubt,  from  the  popular  associa- 
tion of  the  "  commission  "  with  the  idea  of  state  in- 
terference in  municipal  matters. 

The  observant  De  Tocqueville  once  remarked  that 
local  government  is  to  national  what  the  elementary 
school  is  to  the  university;  that  each  in  its  respective 
sphere  performs  the  work  of  preparation.  Political 
education,  it  has  been  observed,  consists  in  the  exer- 
cise not  only  of  the  right  to  choose,  but  of  the  right 
to  be  chosen — in  candidacy  and  in  service — and  under 
the  present  municipal  regime  such  education  is  annu- 
ally afforded  to  a  large  number  of  citizens.  The  plan 
of  government  by  commission  proposes  greatly  to  re- 
duce this  number.  It  would  cut  down  the  list  of  elec- 
tive officers  to  four  or  five,  all  other  posts  being  filled 
by  appointment  presumably  for  long  terms.  This 
policy,  it  is  objected,  would  tend  to  vest  the  work  of 
civic  administration  permanently  in  the  hands  of  a 
very  few  men,  and  might  very  well  assist  in  the  de- 
velopment, as  in  the  German  cities,  of  a  professional 
city  bureaucracy.  The  present  multiplication  of  elec- 
tive offices  affords  to  a  unique  degree  the  opportunity 
for  a  large  number  of  citizens  to  be  brought  into  touch 
with  local  political  affairs  and  to  obtain  such  political 
education  as  this  contact  involves. 

Again,  objection  is  made  that  the  system  will  serve 
to  strengthen  rather  than  to  weaken  the  influence  of 
the   regular   partisan   organizations    in   civic   affairs. 


THE    GALVESTON    PLAN  57 

The  concentration  of  power  and  patronage  in  the 
hands  of  a  few  commissioners  would,  it  is  claimed, 
make  it  seem  imperative  to  the  party  leaders  that  the 
commission  should  be  controlled;  and  the  party  ener- 
gies, now  spread  over  a  wider  area,  would  thus  be 
concentrated  at  a  single  point.  It  is  quite  true  that 
whenever  the  power  and  patronage  of  the  mayor  have 
been  extended,  the  result  has  not  been  to  diminish  the 
force  of  partisanship  in  mayoralty  elections;  on  the 
contrary,  party  leaders  have  been  impelled  to  make 
more  energetic  campaigns  and  to  perfect  their  organi- 
zations in  order  that  they  might  control  an  office 
which  had  become  the  more  valuable  to  them.  Fur- 
.thermore,  the  election  of  four  or  five  commissioners 
by  the  voters  at  large  W'Ould,  in  all  probability,  result 
in  selections  from  the  ranks  of  a  single  party;  the 
dominant  party  could  in  most  cases  elect  its  whole 
slate,  and  the  minority  party  would  in  consequence  be 
wholly  unrepresented.  There  might,  no  doubt,  be 
frequent  exceptions  to  this,  but  it  would  be  the  more 
usual  outcome.  On  the  other  hand,  a  large  council, 
the  members  of  which  are  elected  by  small  districts, 
will  almost  certainly  contain  representatives  of  the 
weaker  political  party.  Much  of  the  hopes  placed 
upon  the  new  system  arise  from  the  proposal  that 
commissioners  shall  be  elected  at  large;  but  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  plan  of  election  at  large  is 
not  without  its  counterbalancing  defects. 

It  has,  perhaps,  been  characteristic  of  the  Ameri- 
can voter  that  he  is  prone  to  lay  too  much  stress  upon 
the  form  of  government  and  too  little  upon  its  per- 


58       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

sonnel.  He  is  not  always  quick  to  see  that  the  more 
efficient  administration  of  European  cities  resuhs  not 
at  all  from  their  superior  framework  of  local  govern- 
ment, but  from  the  higher  caliber  of  men  who  seek 
and  obtain  municipal  office.  Without  a  change  of 
personnel,  the  substitution  of  government  by  commis- 
sion for  the  existing  system  would  assuredly  avail  but 
little.  Indeed,  a  corrupt  or  an  inefficient  commission 
with  wide  powers  would  be  much  more  capable  of 
injuring  the  best  interests  of  a  city  than  an  equally 
corrupt  or  inefficient  set  of  administrative  organs 
with  powers  and  patronage  decentralized ;  for  the  very 
complexity  and  cumbrousness  of  the  present  system 
serves  in  some  degree  to  place  an  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  any  widespread  or  consistent  wrongdoing.  The 
real  question  is,  therefore,  whether  a  better  class  of 
men  would  be  attracted  to  a  small  commission  than 
to  a  large  council.  To  this  the  lesson  of  experience 
seems  to  give  an  affirmative  reply.  But  it  is  a  matter 
of  probability  rather  than  a  matter  of  certainty. 

Sponsors  of  the  commission  plan  have  sometimes 
urged  that  its  adoption  would  insure  administration 
by  skilled  experts,  since  appointments  made  by  a  small 
body  would  probably  be  dictated  by  reasons  of  merit 
and  experience  alone.  It  may  be  noted,  however,  that 
the  vesting  of  the  right  of  appointment  in  the  hands 
of  a  small  body,  or  even  in  the  hands  of  a  single  officer, 
would  not  necessarily  insure  this  result.  There  was 
a  time  in  American  cities  when  patronage  was  com- 
mitted to  the  municipal  council,  and  under  this  system 
partisan  considerations  almost  exclusively  influenced 


THE   GALVESTON   PLAN 


59 


the  making  of  appointments  to  office.  Municipal  re- 
formers insisted  that  this  pernicious  policy  could  be 
brought  to  an  end  only  by  transferring  the  appointing 
power  to  the  mayor  and  by  placing  upon  the  mayor 
alone  the  full  and  entire  responsibility.  But,  during 
the  decade  or  more  since  this  transfer  has  been  made, 
it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  individual  merit  and 
capabilities  have  counted  much  more  in  determining 
appointments  than  they  did  in  the  days  when  the  coun- 
cil possessed  the  patronage.  Now  it  is  proposed  to 
vest  the  patronage  once  again  with  a  body  of  men; 
but  one  may  scarcely  venture  to  hope  that  partisan 
considerations  will  lose  much  of  their  strength  be- 
cause of  any  such  further  transfer.  Definite  location 
of  responsibility  for  civic  appointments  seems,  as  ex- 
perience shows,  to  afiford  some  assurance  against  gross 
inefficiency;  it  does  not,  apparently,  afford  a  guaran- 
tee that  the  degree  of  efficiency  will  be  very  high. 

An  important  feature  of  both  the  Galveston  and 
the  Des  Moines  plans  of  city  government  by  commis- 
sion is  that  the  "  appropriating  "  and  "  spending  "  au- 
thorities are  fused.  In  other  branches  of  American 
government  it  has  been  the  policy  to  keep  these  two 
jurisdictions  distinct  and  independent;  and  this  has 
been  true  alike  of  national,  state,  and  local  adminis- 
tration. The  legislative  organs  appropriate  the  funds, 
the  administrative  organs  supervise  their  expenditure. 
In  the  New  England  system  of  town  government  the 
board  of  selectmen  does  not  appropriate  moneys  for 
any  purpose;  this  function  is  reserved  to  the  annual 
"  town  meeting."     The  concentration  of  both  powers 


6o       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

in  the  hands  of  a  single  small  commission  might,  and 
probably  would,  serve  the  interests  of  integrity  so 
long  as  men  of  the  right  caliber  constituted  the  com- 
mission; but  there  are  those  who  see  in  this  fusion  of 
jurisdictions  a  potential  element  of  danger.  It  in- 
volves, at  any  rate,  a  radical  departure  from  a  prin- 
ciple which  has  hitherto  characterized  not  alone 
American  government,  but  the  governmental  systems 
of  the  leading  European  states  as  well.  In  the  suc- 
cessful administration  of  German  cities,  for  exam- 
ple, this  separation  of  the  appropriating  from  the 
spending  departments  has  always  been  strongly  em- 
phasized. 

It  is  sometimes  urged  that  the  general  adoption  of 
the  system  of  government  by  commission  would  en- 
courage state  intervention  in  municipal  affairs.  In 
every  large  city  there  come  up,  year  by  year,  many 
important  questions  which  demand  broad  legislative 
action.  Now,  whether  their  policy  has  been  wise  or 
unwise  in  this  direction,  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that 
state  authorities  have  been  extremely  loath  to  intrust 
broad  legislative  functions  to  small  boards  whose 
jurisdiction  is  mainly  administrative.  The  associa- 
tion of  well-considered  legislative  action  with  large 
bodies  is  deeply  imbedded  in  the  American  mind  and 
will  not  be  easily  eradicated.  If  large  municipal  coun- 
cils are  eliminated  from  the  framework  of  city  gov- 
ernment, there  would  seem  to  be  a  danger  that  state 
legislatures  would  be  tempted  to  assume  for  them- 
selves some  of  the  broader  legislative  functions  which 
the  councils  have  been  accustomed  to  exercise.     At 


THE   GALVESTON   PLAN  6i 

any  rate,  we  know  from  experience  that  where  the 
legislative  powers  of  municipal  councils  have  been 
curtailed  their  former  powers  have  usually  been  as- 
sumed by  the  state  legislature  and  have  not  been  trans- 
ferred to  some  other  organ  of  local  government. 
That  there  has  been,  on  the  whole,  too  much  state  in- 
terference in  municipal  affairs,  most  students  of  gov- 
ernment are  disposed  to  admit;  this  intervention  has 
been  on  occasions  salutary,  but  more  often  detrimental 
to  the  best  interests  of  the  cities  concerned.  It  may 
properly  be  urged,  therefore,  that  any  step  which 
promises  to  afford  an  incentive  to  greater  inroads 
upon  the  principle  of  civic  autonomy  should  not  be 
taken  hastily  or  without  due  consideration  of  its 
less  immediate,  but  none  the  less  important,  conse- 
quences. 

In  weighing  the  respective  merits  and  defects  of 
the  Galveston  plan  as  these  would  probably  work  out 
were  the  system  given  general  application,  the  burden 
of  proof  ought  in  fairness  to  be  placed  upon  those 
who  advocate  the  extension.  A  change  in  any  de- 
partment of  American  government  which  involves  a 
transformation  so  complete  of  the  whole  framework 
of  organization  should  not  be  readily  adopted  until  it 
can  be  said  to  promise,  with  a  reasonable  degree  of 
certainty,  a  very  decisive  improvement  in  civic  ad- 
ministration. It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  experi- 
ment of  government  by  commission  has  as  yet  been 
adequately  tried  in  Galveston  alone,  and  that  here  the 
circumstances  were  distinctly  unusual.  A  receivership 
may  be  the  best  means  of  getting  a  bankrupt  business 


62       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

corporation  upon  its  financial  feet,  but  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  all  sound  and  solvent  concerns  should  forth- 
with permanently  adopt  this  method  of  administering 
their  affairs. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  the  present  system  of  civic 
administration  is  too  complicated,  and  too  cursed  with 
the  curse  of  divided  responsibility  to  prove  reasonably 
efficient,  any  step  in  the  direction  of  simplification 
should  be  welcomed  by  those  who  have  the  best  inter- 
ests of  American  cities  at  heart.  Those  who  are  prone 
to  look  askance  at  anything  which  involves  concentra- 
tion of  power  may  be  reminded  that  such  is  never  dan- 
gerous when  accompanied  by  an  equal  concentration 
of  responsibility.  Not  a  few  American  cities  at  the 
present  time  are,  as  everyone  knows,  controlled  by 
small  coteries  of  men — party  managers — who  domi- 
nate the  official  organs.  These  men  are  dangerous 
because  they  concentrate  power  without  responsibility. 
The  system  of  government  by  commission,  if  it  would 
not  eliminate  the  "  bosses,"  promises,  at  any  rate,  to 
compel  them  to  work  in  the  open. 

Experiments  with  the  Galveston  plan  in  a  number 
of  cities  differing  in  size  and  situated  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  will  serve  to  mark  out  more  clearly 
the  merits  and  defects  of  the  system  in  action.  Such 
experiments  may  be  welcomed  as  paving  the  way  for 
what  may  secure  substantial  improvement  in  civic  ad- 
ministration;  but  no  one  who  appreciates  the  difficul- 
ties of  the  problem  will  readily  hope  to  find  in  this 
or  in  any  other  formal  change  a  panacea  for  all  mu- 
nicipal ills.     The  plan  can  be  said  to  have  established 


THE    GALVESTON    PLAN  63 

a  prima  facie  case ;  and  it  well  deserves  a  sympathetic 
trial  on  a  sufficiently  broad  scale  to  enable  it  to  be 
fairly  judged.^ 

^  Professor  Munra's  conclusions  of  1907  have  been  reinforced  by 
experience,  and  this  chapter  is  repubhshed,  four  years  later,  with  his 
sanction  and  approval  and  without  a  single  alteration.  The  suc- 
ceeding chapter  is  by  one  of  his  students,  and  was  prepared  three 
years  later.  While  it  traverses  the  same  ground,  and  while  it  re- 
flects Dr.  Mvmro's  influence,  it  is  a  valuable  contribution  in  itself, 
and  serves  further  to  corroborate  Professor  Munro's  conclusions  out 
of  the  wider  and  more  abimdant  experience  which  the  past  four 
years  have  aflEorded. — C.  R.  W. 


CHAPTER    V 

COMMISSION   GOVERNMENT  DESCRIBED  ^ 

To  appreciate  the  real  significance  in  municipal  af- 
fairs of  the  lately  inaugurated  movement  toward  city 
government  by  commission,  some  knowledge  of  the 
general  trend  of  American  municipal  development  is 
necessary;  for  it  is  as  a  phase  of  a  general  tendency 
and  not  as  an  isolated  experiment,  that  the  movement 
is  to  be  properly  regarded.  Like  most  of  our  insti- 
tutions, our  city  government,  both  in  form  and  sub- 
stance, was  transplanted  from  England  to  the  colonies, 
where  it  underwent  the  usual  differentiation  under  the 
influence  of  changed  conditions.  This  differentiation, 
however,  did  not  proceed  to  any  marked  degree  dur- 
ing the  colonial  period,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
national  era  the  general  form  of  municipal  govern- 
ment, with  the  exception  of  the  New  England  town- 
meeting  system,  was  that  of  the  English  borough. 
Then  began  a  new  period,  during  which  the  influence 
of  the  federal  and  state  governments  dominated  the 
organic  development  of  the  municipalities. 

^  This  chapter  is  the  essay  (somewhat  abridged)  which  was 
awarded  by  the  National  Municipal  Ivcague  the  Baldwin  Prize  for 
191  o.  Its  author  is  Oswald  Ryan,  of  the  Class  of  191 1,  Harvard 
University. 

64 


COMMISSION    GOVERNMENT    DESCRIBED       65 

That  the  "  federal  analogy  "  should  have  thus  be- 
come the  controlling  factor  in  this  development  was 
due  partly  to  a  widespread  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  the 
governmental  principles  which  it  involved,  and  partly 
to  a  misconception  of  the  functions  of  the  municipality. 
A  cardinal  feature  of  the  federal  plan  was  Montes- 
quieu's principle  of  the  separation  of  powers,  having 
for  its  object  to  safeguard  the  interests  of  the  people 
against  the  arbitrary  and  ill-advised  acts  of  public  of- 
ficers. Another  characteristic  was  the  bicameral  leg- 
islature composed  of  members  representing  geograph- 
ical districts.  By  incorporating  these  principles  in  the 
municipal  charters  which  the  rapidly  growing  needs  of 
the  urban  population  brought  into  existence  during  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  state  legislatures  sowed  the 
seed  of  municipal  inefficiency,  which  was  destined  to 
bear  fruit  in  "  the  one  conspicuous  failure  of  the 
American  people." 

The  consequence  of  this  senseless  diffusion  of 
powers  among  various  boards  and  officials,  which  re- 
ceived its  widest  application  during  the  last  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  was  to  render  almost  impos- 
sible the  prompt  and  efficient  performance  of  munici- 
pal functions.  The  principle  of  "  checks  and  bal- 
ances," intended  as  a  curb  on  the  arbitrary  and 
ill-advised  acts  of  public  officials,  became  instead  an 
obstacle  to  the  wise  and  salutary  measures  of  men 
who  had  at  heart  the  best  interests  of  the  people. 
Moreover,  since  the  concomitant  of  the  division  of 
power  is  division  of  responsibility,  it  became  impos- 
sible to  fix  the  blame  for  inefficiency  and  corruption, 


66       CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

which  became  ever  present  factors  in  city  administra- 
tion. 

Scarcely  less  sinister  in  its  results  was  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  representative  legislature.  The  belief  in 
sectional  representation  was  doubtless  based  upon  the 
assumption  that  the  different  parts  of  a  city  possess 
different  interests  as  different  states  sometimes  possess 
diverse  interests.  Experience  proved,  however,  that 
there  was  no  such  division  of  interests  as  was  sup- 
posed, and  the  municipal  council,  instead  of  regarding 
the  general  interests  of  the  city,  came  to  represent  the 
special  interests  of  particular  wards.  A  blind  adher- 
ence to  principles  which  had  contributed  to  the  suc- 
cess of  a  national  government,  besides  opening  the 
way  to  extravagance,  wastefulness,  and  inefficiency, 
gave  demagogic  politicians  an  opportunity  to  exploit 
the  public  interests,  and  thus  prepared  the  way  for  the 
spoils  system  in  local  government. 

The  logical  result  of  this  growth  toward  a  cum- 
bersome and  complex  system  was  the  birth,  in  the. 
closing  decades  of  the  last  century,  of  a  counter 
movement  toward  the  centralization  of  administrative 
power  and  responsibility.  The  important  powers 
which  had  been  gradually  taken  from  the  municipal 
council  and  distributed  among  numerous  boards  and 
officials  were  now  centered  in  the  mayor,  who  became 
the  most  powerful  member  of  the  government.  It  is 
as  another  form  of  this  tendency  toward  administra- 
tive centralization  that  the  movement  for  city  gov- 
ernment by  commission  finds  its  proper  place  in  the 
general  municipal  movement. 


COMMISSION    GOVERNMENT    DESCRIBED        67 

The  first  city  to  abandon  the  old  form  of  gov- 
ernment for  the  commission  plan  as  it  is  commonly 
understood  to-day  was  Galveston.  The  immediate 
cause  of  this  radical  change  was  the  destructive  tidal 
wave  which  swept  over  the  city  in  1900,  destroying 
a  large  part  of  the  population  and  property.  The 
great  calamity  came  as  a  kind  of  climax  to  a  long 
period  of  wretched  experience  during  which  the  city 
government  had  become  so  clogged  with  inefficiency 
and  corruption  as  to  reduce  the  administration  to  a 
deplorable  state.  At  this  juncture,  when  the  city  was 
facing  bankruptcy,  an  organization  of  business  men, 
who  represented  large  property  interests,  undertook 
to  ameliorate  the  conditions  through  an  attempt  to 
secure  a  new  government.  The  idea  of  government 
by  commission  was  then  suggested  and  embodied  in  a 
new  charter.  Exactly  twelve  months  after  the  flood, 
as  a  result  of  a  vigorous  campaign  in  which  many  of 
the  most  prominent  citizens  joined,  the  old  govern- 
ment was  replaced  by  the  commission. 

The  basic  idea  of  the  new  government  was  the 
centralization  of  all  municipal  powers  in  a  board  of 
five  members,  one  of  whom  was  given  the  title  of 
mayor-president.  That  the  very  striking  improve- 
ment which  followed  the  establishment  of  this  simple 
and  efficient  system  should  have  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  other  cities  which  were  suffering  from  the 
common  municipal  ills  was  natural,  and  within  a  few 
years  several  other  Texas  cities  had  received  similar 
charters  from  the  legislature.  Interest  in  the  new 
plan  now  spread  to  the  northern  states,  where  several 


68       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

legislatures  passed  acts  permitting  cities,  through  a 
referendum  vote,  to  adopt  the  new  form  of  govern- 
ment. The  plan  has  spread  so  rapidly  within  the  last 
few  years  that  almost  every  section  of  the  country 
furnishes  some  example  of  its  application. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  the  Galves- 
ton plan  was  adopted  in  its  entirety  by  those  cities 
which  obtained  commission  charters.  Indeed,  the 
opinion  generally  prevailed  that  the  Galveston  plan 
was  seriously  defective  in  not  having  sufficient  safe- 
guards against  the  misuse  of  power  by  members  of 
the  commission,  and  it  soon  underwent  a  modification 
out  of  which  evolved  a  new  form,  which  is  frequently 
called  the  "  Des  Moines,"  or  "  improved  "  plan.  This 
modified  form,  although  retaining  the  general  charac- 
teristics of  the  Galveston  government,  includes  cer- 
tain additional  devices  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
the  people  a  more  complete  control  over  the  commis- 
sion, and  of  insuring  against  the  influence  of  partisan 
politics  in  municipal  affairs.  These  devices  take  the 
form  of  the  initiative,  referendum,  recall,  and  non- 
partisan choice  of  public  officials.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  this  brief  description  is  intended  to  in- 
dicate the  fundamental  features  of  the  modified  plan, 
and  not  to  imply  a  uniformity  of  details,  which  does 
not  exist.^ 

The  division  of  administrative  functions  in  those 
cities  which  have  adopted  the  modified  form  varies  in 

•  For  a  comprehensive  definition  of  commission  government  of 
cities  designed  to  make  allowances  for  these  diversities,  see  Eliot's 
definition  in  Chapter  I. 


COMMISSION   GOVERNMENT   DESCRIBED       69 

the  different  charters.  As  in  the  Galveston  plan,  the 
mayor  is  always  the  executive  head  of  the  adminis- 
tration, and,  except  in  a  very  few  instances,  has  no  more 
power  than  the  other  members  of  the  board.  He  is 
sometimes  placed  at  the  head  of  a  department,  but 
more  frequently  exerts  a  general  supervisory  power 
over  the  municipality  as  a  whole,  occupying  a  place 
somewhat  similar  in  this  respect  to  that  of  the  Ger- 
man burgomaster.  The  departments  of  finance  and 
revenue  and  police  and  fire  are  generally  provided 
for  in  the  various  charters,  and  the  remaining  func- 
tions vary  in  their  nature  and  distribution  in  the  dif- 
ferent cities.  The  general  policy-determining  powers, 
including  the  power  of  appointment  and  removal,  are 
vested  in  the  commission. 

Commissioners  are  regularly  elected  at  large  by 
the  qualified  voters  of  the  city  for  a  term  varying, 
in  most  cases,  from  two  to  four  years.  In  some  in- 
stances they  are  elected  to  specific  departments,  but 
the  more  common  practice  is  for  the  commission  as 
a  whole  to  assign  its  members  to  the  several  depart- 
ments. An  interesting  question,  which  may  be  noted  • 
here,  has  been  raised  with  regard  to  whether  the  com- 
missioners should  be  required  to  devote  all  or  a  part 
of  their  time  to  the  work  of  their  office.  It  has  been 
held  by  some  that  a  liberal  compensation  should  be 
provided  and  the  commissioner  be  required  to  devote 
all  his  time  to  the  work  of  his  office.  Others  have 
held  that  such  a  provision  would  discourage  from 
entering  the  public  service  men  who  would  be  unwill- 
ing to  give  up  their  private  business,  and  thus  would 


70       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

deprive  the  municipality  of  the  services  of  a  most 
competent  class  of  men.  The  present  trend  of  opinion 
seems  to  favor  the  provision  requiring  the  commis- 
sioner to  devote  his  entire  time  to  the  work  of  the  city. 
The  initiative,  referendum,  and  recall,  which  char- 
acterize the  modified  plan,  further  reflect  the  desire 
for  more  responsible  officials.  The  Des  IMoines  char- 
ter, which,  because  it  has  been  widely  copied,  may  be 
regarded  as  typical  in  this  respect,  provides  that  any 
proposed  ordinance  may  be  submitted  to  the  council 
on  a  petition  signed  by  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the 
voters,  and,  if  requested  in  the  petition,  requires  the 
council  to  pass  the  ordinance  without  alteration  with- 
in twenty  days,  or,  if  requested  in  the  petition,  to  sub- 
mit it  to  the  people  for  vote.^  The  voters  then  have 
the  privilege  of  enacting  the  ordinance  into  law,  and 
it  may  not  be  altered  or  repealed  by  the  council  until 
it  has  again  been  submitted  to  popular  vote.  The 
charter  further  provides  that  any  ordinance  may  be 
suspended  on  petition  signed  by  twenty-five  per  cent 
of  the  voters  and  presented  within  ten  days  after  the 
passage  of  the  ordinance,  and  makes  it  obligatory  on 
the  council  either  to  repeal  the  offensive  ordinance  or 
submit  it  to  a  referendum  vote.  A  referendum  is 
required  on  all  franchises.  The  recall  may  be  brought 
into  use  by  a  petition  signed  by  twenty-five  per  cent 

*  If  the  petition  is  signed  by  not  less  than  lo  per  cent  nor  more  than 
25  per  cent  of  the  electors  the  council  must  pass  the  ordinance  without 
change  "  or  submit  the  same  at  the  next  general  city  election  oc- 
curring not  more  than  30  days  after  the  clerk's  certificate  of  suf- 
ficiency is  attached  to  said  petition." — O.  R. 


COMMISSION    GOVERNMENT    DESCRIBED 


71 


of  the  voters;  if  the  petition  is  found  to  be  sufficient 
the  council  is  required  to  call  an  election  in  which  the 
offending  official  may  be  a  candidate.  A  perplexing 
question  has  risen  in  many  cities  in  connection  with 
the  per  centum  of  votes  required  to  bring  the  recall  into 
operation,  and  a  dissatisfaction  is  noticeable  in  more 
than  one  city  with  the  per  centum  which  has  been  fixed. ^ 
The  general  opinion  seems  to  be  that  this  provision 
should  vary  w  ith  the  size  and  character  of  the  popula- 
tion; thus  it  has  been  held  that  the  twenty-five  per 
centum  is  too  small  for  a  city  of  the  size  of  Haverhill 
and  too  large  for  one  of  the  size  of  Buffalo. 

Enthusiastic  supporters  of  the  modified  plan  of 
commission  government  are  accustomed  to  point  to 
these  provisions  for  direct  legislation  as  its  most  im- 
portant point  of  superiority  over  the  Galveston  system. 
Indeed,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  addition  of  this 
machinery  to  the  original  plan  has  had  much  to  do 
with  overcoming  the  objection  that  the  commission 
system  is  undemocratic,  and  it  is  probable  that  it 
would  never  have  received  such  wide  adoption  had  it 
not  been  so  altered  as  to  place  the  governing  body 
under  closer  popular  control.  And  yet,  though  great 
dependence  is  placed  on  the  initiative,  referendum, 
and  recall,  the  ultimate  efficiency  of  these  devices  is 
by  no  means  an  established  fact.  It  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  principle  of  direct  legislation,  in  the 
few  cases  where  it  has  been  applied  in  the  United 
States,  has  not  been  an  unqualified  success.     It  may 

^  For  details,  see  Chapter  VI. 


72 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 


easily  be  seen  how  the  principle,  if  applied  to  an  ex- 
treme degree  and  by  an  unintelligent  electorate,  might 
prove  an  unwise  interference  with  the  work  of  the 
commission.  Nor  is  the  cumbersome  and  expensive 
nature  of  the  instrument  to  be  disregarded  in  consid- 
ering the  advisability  of  its  adoption  in  large  cities. 
Indeed,  it  may  be  said  with  certainty  that  as  long  as 
the  city  electorates  possess  no  higher  sense  of  civic 
consciousness  and  intelligent  interest  than  they  have 
shown  in  the  past,  this  method  of  direct  legislation 
will  not  produce  results  commensurate  with  the  expec- 
tation of  its  promoters. 

Thus  far  the  recall,  with  one  exception,  has  not 
been  brought  into  use  in  commission-governed  cities, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  difficult  to  render  judgment  on  the 
efficacy  of  this  instrument.*  Some  persons  have  as- 
serted that  it  will  deprive  the  commissioners  of  their 
independence  of  action,  and  make  them  subservient 
to  the  popular  clamor.  Others  have  feared  that  it 
will  put  a  weapon  into  the  hands  of  corporations  seek- 
ing public  favors,  who  will  use  it  to  influence  the 
commissioners.  All  that  may  be  safely  said  of  the 
recall  as  a  part  of  the  modified  system  is  that  its  in- 
fluence at  present  lies  in  its  potentiality,  and  not  in 
its  actual  use. 

Another  principle  which  is  perhaps  no  less  impor- 

*  The  two  most  important  and  significant  uses  of  the  recall  have 
been  in  Los  Angeles  and  Seattle,  neither  of  which  have  a  commission 
form  of  government,  although  both  have  charters  which  possess 
some  of  the  fundamental  features  of  it,  notably  the  election  of  the 
councilmen  at  large  and  the  short  ballot. — C.  R.  W. 


COMMISSION    GOVERNMENT    DESCRIBED 


73 


tant  than  that  of  direct  legislation  in  the  modified 
commission  plan,  is  embodied  in  the  nonpartisan 
choice  of  all  officials  and  employees  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  methods  which  have  been  almost  uni- 
formly adopted  to  accomplish  these  objects  are  the 
nonpartisan  primary  and  election  and  the  civil  service 
board.  Here  we  find  the  charters  var3nng  in  the  ex- 
tent to  which  they  provide  for  the  elimination  of 
partisan  politics  in  municipal  affairs.  The  Haverhill 
government,  for  example,  merely  includes  the  non- 
partisan ballot  and  civil  service,  while  the  Iowa  law, 
on  the  other  hand,  goes  further  in  prohibiting  any 
person  or  candidate  from  accepting  or  giving  money 
to  a  candidate  for  office  to  secure  election  or  appoint- 
ment; and  provides  for  the  punishment  of  any  person 
who  accepts  money  for  services  rendered  to  a  can- 
didate. 

The  civil  service  board  is  sometimes  provided  for 
in  the  charter  and  sometimes  in  the  general  laws  of 
the  state,  in  which  case  there  may  be  a  local  board  in 
each  city  or  a  single  state  board.  The  ordinary  char- 
ter, like  that  of  Des  Moines,  provides  for  a  board  of 
five  members  who  are  elected  by  the  commission  and 
have  no  other  official  connection  with  the  government. 

The  principle  of  the  merit  system,  thus  embodied  in 
the  ordinary  commission  charter,  is  unquestionably  es- 
sential to  the  well-being  of  the  administrative  service; 
the  provisions  prescribing  the  manner  in  which  this 
principle  shall  be  applied,  however,  are  open  to  serious 
criticism  and  constitute  an  important  defect  in  the  com- 
mission charter.     The  charter  ordinarily  contains  a 


74       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

brief  statement  of  the  merit  principle  and  leaves  it 
to  the  commission  to  supplement  this  principle  by 
establishing  the  scope  and  work  of  the  civil  service 
board.  But  this  scheme  is  inconsistent  with  the  fun- 
damental principle  of  the  commission  plan,  the  cen- 
tralization of  official  responsibility.  If  the  civil  service 
board  failed  to  carry  out  the  principle  laid  down  in  the 
charter  the  responsibility  for  this  failure  plainly  would 
be  divided  between  it  and  the  commission;  and  this 
involves  a  situation  which  is  supposed  to  find  no  place 
in  the  theory  of  the  commission  government.  More- 
over, the  scheme  places  the  civil  service  board  too 
much  in  the  power  of  the  commission :  the  charter 
provides  a  civil  service  board  as  a  check  on  the  prob- 
able tendency  of  the  commission  to  use  the  admin- 
istrative offices  as  spoils,  and  at  the  same  time,  by 
leaving  it  to  the  commission  to  determine  the  scope 
of  the  board's  duties,  places  to  a  considerable  degree 
in  the  commission's  hands  the  power  which  it  pre- 
sumably seeks  to  check.  The  effective  application  of 
the  merit  system  requires  a  more  complete  definition 
of  the  powers  of  the  civil  service  board  than  the  com- 
mission charters  at  present  contain.^ 

An  impartial  investigator,  comparing  present  con- 
ditions in  commission-governed  cities  with  those  ex- 
isting under  the  old  system,  will  be  impressed  with 
the  striking  results  which  have  been  accomplished 
under  the  new  plan.  Perhaps  the  most  marked  change 
has  been  in  the  administration  of  the  city's  finances, 

*As  I  revise  this  I  am  informed  that  this  feature  of  the  Des 
Moines  charter  is  already  breaking  down. — O.  R. 


COMMISSION    GOVERNMENT    DESCRIBED 


75 


a  department  which  has  without  exception  responded 
to  the  enhghtened  efforts  of  the  commissioners.  Large 
floating  debts  have  been  extinguished;  sinking  funds 
created  and  the  pubHc  credit  restored;  the  pohcy  of 
resorting  to  bond  issues  to  meet  current  expenses  has 
been  abandoned;  the  pubhc  funds  have  been  let  out 
to  financial  institutions  and  have  thus  afforded  a 
source  of  considerable  income ;  expenses  in  all  depart- 
ments have  been  cut  down  and  the  tax  rate  in  some 
instances  has  been  reduced.  In  addition  to  an  im- 
proved financial  condition,  investigation  shows  a  de- 
cided improvement  in  the  various  public  services, 
which  invariably  have  been  brought  to  a  higher  point 
of  efficiency;  purer  water,  better  streets,  and  a  more 
efficient  police  and  fire  service  are  testified  to  by  visit- 
ing delegations  and  students. 

Again,  a  higher  grade  of  men,  in  many  instances, 
has  been  attracted  into  the  municipal  service.  The 
reasons  for  this  are  plain.  Aside  from  the  necessity 
of  catering  to  a  political  "  boss  "  in  order  to  hope  for 
public  office,  perhaps  nothing  has  been  more  influential 
in  driving  competent  men  from  the  public  service  than 
the  curtailment  of  the  powers  of  the  council,  and  the 
diffusion  of  those  powers  among  numerous  boards 
and  officials,  which  took  place  in  the  last  century. 
The  experience  of  those  years  proves  beyond  all  doubt 
that  the  character  of  civic  office  declines  according 
to  the  power  associated  with  it.  The  increased  power 
and  importance  which  the  commission  charter  confers 
upon  the  council,  and  the  freedom  of  the  candidate 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  boss,  have  no  doubt  been 


76       CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

responsible  for  the  presence  of  a  better  grade  of 
officials  in  the  commission-governed  cities.  Whether 
the  second  of  these  factors  will  continue  to  be  oper- 
ative time  only  can  decide. 

It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  the  commis- 
sion governments  have  always  been  in  charge  of  men 
of  extraordinary  ability,  or  that  the  success  of  the 
plan  depends  upon  the  presence  of  experts  on  the 
commission.  The  expert  must  be  present  if  the  com- 
mission is  to  be  a  success,  but  he  must  be  present  in 
the  permanent  official  and  not  necessarily  in  the  elec- 
tive commissioner.  The  commissioner's  function  is 
generally "  supervisory,  not  administrative,  and  the 
people  are  always  competent  to  choose  a  supervisor,  al- 
though they  seldom  succeed  in  choosing  expert  admin- 
istrators. It  is  true  that  some  commissions,  like 
that  of  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  have  been  made  up 
largely  of  municipal  experts;  the  majority,  however, 
like  that  of  Galveston,  have  been  composed  of  men  of 
average  ability.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  pre- 
vailing type  of  elective  official  in  American  cities  under 
a  system  of  manhood  suffrage  is  likely  to  be  the  man 
of  average  powers,  the  great  importance  of  this  fact  in 
determining  the  ultimate  value  of  the  commission  plan 
becomes  apparent.  Commission  government  will  not 
eliminate  the  political  leader;  the  best  it  can  do  is  to 
exclude  the  undesirable  type  of  political  leader  from 
the  public  service,  and,  indeed,  this  is  all  that  it  prop- 
erly should  do. 

Another  striking  improvement  has  been  a  general 
elevation  in  the  moral  tone  of  the  cities  which  have 


COMMISSION   GOVERNMENT    DESCRIBED       77 

adopted  the  new  plan.  Citizens  and  investigators 
generally  agree  that  the  advent  of  the  new  system 
has,  for  the  most  part,  been  marked  by  the  elimination 
of  gambling,  the  policy  shop,  the  disreputable  resort 
and  other  forms  of  vice.  Perhaps  the  most  striking 
example  of  such  improvement  is  found  in  Galveston, 
where  the  lawless  elements,  for  many  years  previous  to 
the  adoption  of  the  commission  form,  exerted  a  tre- 
mendously demoralizing  influence  over  the  administra- 
tion. A  simple  program  of  strict  and  impartial  law 
enforcement  has  been  responsible  for  this  change. 

A  consideration  of  the  improvements  which  have 
taken  place  under  commission  government  naturally 
gives  rise  to  the  question :  What  causes  have  been 
responsible  for  these  results?  The  advocates  of  the 
commission  plan  give  the  entire  credit  for  the  im- 
proved conditions  to  the  system  itself;  its  opponents 
explain  the  improvement  in  the  light  of  the  increased 
public  interest  in  city  affairs,  and  assert  that  the  old 
system  would  have  given  the  same  service  if  it  had 
been  supported  by  an  active  public  opinion.  Although 
it  must  be  admitted  that  public  opinion  is  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  success  of  any  system  of  government, 
it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  the  form  of  the  government 
is  also  important;  the  system  reacts  upon  the  people 
just  as  the  people  react  upon  the  system.  A  considera- 
tion of  the  merits  and  defects  of  the  commission  plan, 
therefore,  will  be  helpful  in  explaining  its  past  success 
and  in  judging  of  its  ultimate  value. 

By  far  the  most  conspicuous  merit  of  the  plan  lies 
in  its  centralized   character.     The   whole  course   of 


78       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

municipal  history  points  to  the  truth  that  adminis- 
trative skill  and  efficiency,  to  be  effective,  must  be 
centralized.  An  appreciation  of  this  principle  explains 
the  marked  efficiency  of  European  city  governments, 
just  as  its  violation  accounts  for  the  inefficiency  of 
the  American  governments.  Now,  as  has  often  been 
pointed  out  by  its  advocates,  city  government  is 
largely  a  matter  of  business  management,  and,  there- 
fore, demands  an  administrative  organization  that  will 
be  suitable  for  conducting  business  operations.  The 
commission  plan,  with  its  small  council,  resembling 
a  board  of  directors,  thus  permits  the  transaction  of 
the  city's  business  with  the  same  promptness  and 
efficiency  with  which  the  affairs  of  a  private  corpora- 
tion are  managed. 

Especially  will  this  advantage  be  apparent  in  the 
management  of  public  franchises — a  function  which  is 
too  often  associated  with  gross  inefficiency  and  corrup- 
tion. Indeed,  it  has  been  found  almost  impossible 
under  the  old  form  of  government  to  secure  a  regard 
for  the  ordinary  business  principles  in  the  granting 
of  franchise  and  other  public  privileges.  The  small 
commission  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  correct  this 
evil  and  secure  more  equitable  conditions  for  the  pub- 
lic. Moreover,  while  the  commission  charter  does  not 
guarantee  to  eliminate  corruption  in  connection  with 
these  grants,  it  promises  to  reduce  the  probability  of 
such  corruption  to  a  minimum. 

From  this  centralization  of  power  flows  another 
distinct  merit  of  the  commission  plan,  namely,  a  cen- 
tralization of  official  responsibility.    The  most  impres- 


COMMISSION   GOVERNMENT   DESCRIBED       79 

sive  lesson  which  our  municipal  experience  teaches 
is  that  honesty  and  efficiency  in  government  are  but 
idle  terms  when  responsibility  is  divided,  and  it  is  no 
exaggeration  to  say  that  whatever  improvement  the 
past  few  years  have  witnessed  in  our  cities  has  in- 
volved some  recognition  of  this  principle.  Now,  un- 
der the  commission  plan  responsibility  is  centralized 
in  a  few  elective  officers  who  have  no  means  of  evad- 
ing it.  "  The  citizen  of  the  commission  city,"  declares 
the  enthusiastic  advocate,  "  knows  who  is  responsible 
for  the  impure  water,  the  unclean  streets,  or  the  negli- 
gent police  force,  and  may  direct  his  criticism  against 
the  delinquent  officer."  The  consciousness  of  this 
ever-present  public  scrutiny,  it  is  asserted,  will  keep 
the  commissioners  responsive  to  the  popular  will  and 
eliminate  official  negligence  and  incompetency  from 
the  administration. 

This  merit  is  undoubtedly  to  be  commended  in  the 
commission  system,  and  yet  it  must  not  be  overlooked 
that,  to  be  effective,  it  must  be  supported  by  an  enlight- 
ened public  interest,  and  that  an  indifferent  electorate 
will  not  only  fail  to  make  effective  this  responsibility, 
but,  because  of  the  centralization  of  power  which  goes 
with  centralized  responsibility,  will  open  the  way  to 
more  serious  consequences  than  would  be  possible 
under  the  old  system  of  divided  power.  Concentra- 
tion of  responsibility  is  not  ipso  facto  a  guarantee  of 
honest  and  efficient  administration,  although  it  will  do 
much  to  secure  good  government  when  supported  by 
public  opinion. 

Another  commendable  quality  of  the  commission 


8o       CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

plan  is  its  extreme  flexibility,  which  permits  the  ad- 
ministrative machinery  to  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  individual  city.  Here  again  we  encounter  a  weak- 
ness of  the  old  government  which  appeared  during 
the  last  century;  for,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  our  city 
governments  have  not  always  possessed  the  rigidity 
of  character  which  now  characterizes  them.  The 
same  period  that  saw  the  dominating  influence  of  the 
state  and  national  governments  on  the  municipalities 
witnessed  the  gradual  assumption  by  the  state  legis- 
latures of  powers  previously  exercised  by  the  local 
governing  bodies.  Among  these  usurpations  was  the 
power  of  prescribing  the  details  of  the  local  admin- 
istrative machinery,  which  thereafter  was  exercised 
by  the  state  legislature,  which  possessed  little,  if  any, 
knowledge  of  local  needs.  The  logical  result  was  the 
growth  of  an  inflexible  administrative  organization 
which,  under  rapidly  changing  social  and  economic 
conditions,  made  practically  impossible  a  scientific  solu- 
tion of  the  city  problem.  The  commission  plan,  there- 
fore, by  intrusting  the  details  of  organization  to  a 
locally  elected  body,  makes  possible  a  flexible  and  re- 
sponsive administrative  machinery,  which  will  go  far 
to  solve  the  problem  of  city  government.^ 

In  general  harmony  with  these  motives  of  secur- 
ing a  centralized,  responsible,  and  flexible  administra- 

*  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  this  flexibility  of  adminis- 
tration might  be  obtained  in  another  than  the  commission  plan, 
provided  that  the  charter  gave  to  the  local  council  complete  power 
over  the  local  administration.  It  is  in  the  commission  charters  that 
this  principle  has  been  most  eflfectually  applied;  hence  its  treatment 
in  this  chapter. — O.  R. 


COMMISSION    GOVERNMENT    DESCRIBED       8i 

tion,  the  commission  plan  seeks  to  eliminate  partisan- 
ship from  the  administrative  service.  The  importance 
of  this  virtue  in  any  plan  of  city  government  must  be 
apparent  to  all  who  have  observed  the  demoralizing  in- 
fluence of  partisan  politics  in  city  affairs.  Several  years 
ago  James  Bryce  wrote  that  the  party  system  was  per- 
haps an  incident  rather  than  a  cause  of  the  failure  of  the 
American  city  governments.  It  can  scarcely  be  doubted 
now  that  the  influence  of  party  politics  has  been  one  of 
the  leading  factors  in  the  decline  of  the  cities.  With- 
out this  baneful  influence  the  cities  would  hardly  have 
reached  such  a  degraded  state  as  that  into  which  they 
fell  under  the  party  system.  It  does  not  follow,  how- 
ever, that  because  partisan  politics  should  be  banished 
from  city  administration  the  party  system  itself  should 
be  abolished.  While  the  struggle  between  parties 
founded  on  state  and  national  issues,  and  having  no 
relation  to  municipal  policies,  is  to  be  condemned,  it  is 
none  the  less  true  that  parties  divided  on  local  issues 
are  both  desirable  and  necessary,  and  should  be  recog- 
nized as  a  legitimate  part  of  local  government.  It  may 
be  noted  that  the  well-governed  cities  of  Europe  are  all 
administered  by  the  representatives  of  parties.  These 
parties,  however,  divide  on  local  issues  and  do  not 
treat  city  offices  as  political  spoil..  Those  who  are 
directing  the  development  of  our  city  government 
should  not  lose  sight  of  this  necessary  distinction  be- 
tween partisanship  and  local  political  parties. 

The  merits  of  the  commission  plan  which  have 
been  briefly  outlined  are  much  more  obvious  than  its 
defects.     This  is  due  to  the  comparatively  short  trial 


82       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

which  the  new  system  has  had,  and  to  the  further  fact 
that  it  has  been  tested  under  most  favorable  condi- 
tions, which  may  easily  have  prevented  latent  defects 
from  revealing  themselves.  Objections  have  been 
urged  against  the  system,  however,  which  deserve  the 
serious  consideration  of  all  who  are  sincerely  desirous 
of  bettering  the  condition  of  the  cities. 

Perhaps  the  most  frequent  indictment  of  the  plan  is 
that  it  is  un-American  and  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  our 
institutions.  The  concentration  of  all  powers  in  a 
small  body,  which  advocates  of  the  system  regard  as 
one  of  its  most  conspicuous  merits,  is  denounced  as  a 
tendency  toward  oligarchy,  to  be  justified  only  on  the 
ground  that  the  many  should  be  ruled  by  the  few. 
The  objection  is  difficult  to  maintain.  It  has  always 
been  recognized  in  American  government  that  where 
responsibility  is  centralized  there  is  no  danger  of  a 
subversion  of  democratic  institutions.  The  New  Eng- 
land town-meeting  system,  with  its  concentration  of 
all  important  powers  in  a  small  board,  is  essentially 
similar  in  this  respect  to  the  commission  plan,  and 
the  town-meeting  plan  has  been  universally  admitted 
to  be  the  most  perfect  form  of  democracy  ever  devised. 

In  one  very  important  respect,  however,  the  new 
form  may  be  said  to  depart  from  the  established  tra- 
ditions of  American  government,  namely,  in  the  fusion 
of  appropriating  and  expending  authorities.  The  prin- 
ciple has  generally  been  recognized  that  these  two 
authorities  should  be  kept  separate,  and  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  county  organizations  the  national, 
state,  and  local  governments  provide  for  the  exercise 


COMMISSION    GOVERNMENT    DESCRIBED       83 

of  the  appropriating  and  expending  functions  by  dif- 
ferent bodies ;  even  the  New  England  board  of  select- 
men possessed  no  powers  of  appropriation,  but  could 
expend  only  what  the  town  meeting  had  appropriated. 
It  is  significant  that  there  has  been  no  serious  attempt 
to  meet  this  objection  to  the  commission  plan,  and 
indeed  it  might  appear  as  if  no  satisfactory  rebuttal  ex- 
isted. It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  principle  of 
the  fusion  of  appropriating  and  expending  authorities 
has  never  been  applied  under  circumstances  as  favor- 
able as  those  under  which  it  is  applied  in  the  commis- 
sion government,  and  that  it  may  after  all  prove  effi- 
cient in  its  new  application. 

Another  objection  offered  to  the  commission  plan 
is  that  it  will  encourage  the  legislatures  to  further  in- 
tervention in  local  affairs,  and  thus  jeopardize  the 
success  of  the  movement  for  municipal  home  rule.  It 
is  asserted  that  legislatures  in  the  past  have  been  ex- 
tremely opposed  to  granting  extensive  powers  to  small 
bodies  and  that  the  small  governing  body  of  the  com- 
mission will  be  no  exception  to  this  rule.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  a  wide  sphere  of  local  control  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  proper  solution  of  the  municipal  prob- 
lem; nor  will  it  be  doubted  that  the  natural  tendency 
of  the  legislatures  has  been  to  be  sparing  in  its  grants 
of  power  to  small  commissions.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  may  be  said  that  thus  far  no  tendency  inimical  to 
home  rule  has  appeared  in  commission-governed  cities, 
and  that  in  some  cases  the  legislature,  instead  of  with- 
holding powers,  has  been  even  more  generous  than 
usual  in  its  grants. 


84       CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

The  force  of  this  objection  is  further  weakened  by 
the  fact  that  the  important  legislative  powers — the 
powers  which  would  stand  in  danger  of  being  with- 
drawn from  the  city  under  the  new  form — are,  in  a 
sense,  not  vested  in  the  commission  at  all  in  most 
charters,  but  in  the  people  at  large  through  the  initia- 
tive and  referendum.  Moreover,  it  may  be  said  that 
in  one  respect  the  commission  plan  even  discourages 
legislative  intervention.  One  of  the  outstanding 
causes  of  state  interference  has  been  the  inflexible 
character  of  the  old  system,  which  has  made  it  neces- 
sary for  the  legislature  to  interfere  whenever  local 
conditions  required  a  change  in  the  administrative 
organization  of  the  city.  Now  under  the  commission 
plan,  since  the  details  of  the  local  administrative  ma- 
chinery are  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  commis- 
sion, there  is  no  excuse  for  state  interference  in  this 
sphere  of  local  afifairs. 

Intimately  connected  with  the  charge  that  the 
commission  plan  is  unfavorable  to  home  rule  for  cities 
is  the  objection  that  it  is  based  upon  a  misconception 
of  the  nature  of  municipal  functions.  A  consistent 
advocate  of  commission  government,  it  is  declared,  is 
forced  to  take  the  position  that  city  government  is 
purely  a  problem  of  business,  and  that  the  government 
should  be  organized  solely  with  a  view  to  adminis- 
trative efficiency.  Thus,  the  commission  plan,  it  is 
asserted,  by  lodging  all  powers  in  a  small  board  of 
department  heads,  makes  no  distinction  between  legis- 
lative and  administrative  powers. 

It  is  probably  true  that  the  advocates  of  the  new 


COMMISSION   GOVERNMENT   DESCRIBED       85 

form  are  accustomed  to  lay  undue  emphasis  on  the 
administrative  character  of  the  municipahty,  and  fre- 
quently lose  sight  of  the  fact  that,  after  all,  municipal 
government  is  a  political  problem.  And  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  a  small  board  of  five  men,  the  larger  part 
of  whose  time  and  energies  must  necessarily  be  occu- 
pied with  administrative  problems,  would  not  appear 
to  be  the  most  efficient  kind  of  legislative  body.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  should  not  be  overlooked  that  the 
commission  form  does  recognize  a  distinction  between 
legislative  and  administrative  powers :  all  administra- 
tive powers  are  vested  in  the  commission,  and  the  most 
important  legislative  powers  are  exercised  by  the  peo- 
ple at  large  through  the  initiative  and  referendum. 
The  opponents  of  the  new  system  should  also  remem- 
ber, in  their  attacks  on  the  administrative  character  of 
the  commission  plan,  that,  while  city  government  is  not 
merely  a  business  problem,  there  is  strong  need  for 
the  application  of  business  principles  in  city  admin- 
istration, and  that  its  failure  to  provide  for  a  more 
businesslike  management  of  the  city's  affairs  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  greatest  indictments  against  the  old 
system. 

Finally,  the  opponents  of  commission  government 
have  charged  that  the  new  form  v>ill  increase  the  influ- 
ence of  party  organs.  It  is  said  that  whenever  an  office 
has  been  made  more  important  through  the  addition  to 
it  of  more  power,  party  machines  have  redoubled  their 
efforts  to  control  it,  with  the  result  that  partisanship 
in  municipal  elections  has  not  been  diminished.  In 
the  light  of  past  experience  this  objection  would  seem 


86       CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

to  merit  serious  consideration,  and  yet  it  must  be  con- 
ceded that  thus  far  commission-governed  cities  have 
been  successful  in  ridding  the  government  of  machine 
rule,  and  that  a  nonpartisan  administration  has  been 
obtained  in  practically  every  instance.  It  would  be 
rash,  however,  to  assume  that  political  organizations 
could  never  find  means  to  get  control  of  public  offices 
under  the  commission  plan;  if  public  sentiment  be- 
came lax,  the  commission  government  would  be  no 
more  immune  against  the  power  of  the  machine  than 
any  other  form  of  government.  Moreover,  the  con- 
sequences resulting  from  such  subjection  to  machine 
rule  would  doubtless  be  much  more  serious  than  under 
the  government  of  distributed  powers,  on  account  of 
the  large  powers  which  are  vested  in  the  commission. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  commission  plan,  through  its 
provisions  for  a  nonpartisan  primary  and  election  and 
the  concentration  of  official  responsibility,  will  make 
it  much  easier  for  an  active  public  opinion  to  express 
itself,  thus  reducing  this  danger  to  a  minimum. 

But  while  the  objection  that  the  commission  gov- 
ernment would  strengthen  the  influence  of  party  ma- 
chines in  city  elections  may  not  appear  so  formidable 
in  view  of  the  nonpartisan  character  of  the  election, 
it  nevertheless  takes  on  an  increased  importance  when 
large  cities  are  considered.  For,  while  the  candidate 
for  public  office  in  the  small  city  can  get  the  ear  of 
the  electorate  without  the  aid  of  a  highly  developed 
organization,  the  candidate  in  the  large  city  finds  this 
practically  impossible,  so  large  is  the  number  of  voters 
to  be  addressed.    He  is  therefore  compelled  by  neces- 


COMMISSION   GOVERNMENT    DESCRIBED       87 

sity  to  resort  to  the  plan  of  building  up  an  organiza- 
tion to  promote  his  candidacy.  But  in  this  kind  of 
work  the  political  specialist  backed  by  the  machine 
will  have  a  tremendous  advantage,  and  thus  the  ma- 
chine candidate  stands  an  excellent  chance  of  success. 

Moreover,  the  city  of  large  and  heterogeneous 
population  presents  political  problems  which  are  not 
so  much  in  evidence  in  the  small  city,  and  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  small  governing  body  of  the 
commission  plan  wall  afford  a  genuine  representation 
of  the  various  interests  that  make  up  the  large  city. 
While  the  fact  that  none  of  the  large  cities  have  had 
experience  with  the  system  will  not  permit  any  dog- 
matic statements  regarding  its  efficiency  in  this  sphere, 
its  adoption,  nevertheless,  by  large  and  cosmopolitan 
communities  would  appear  to  be  a  precarious  experi- 
ment at  the  least,  and  one  to  be  undertaken  only  after 
the  most  thorough  consideration  of  its  probable  con- 
sequences. 

To  render  final  judgment  at  the  present  time  on 
the  efficiency  of  the  commission  plan  of  city  govern- 
ment would  be  an  act  of  presumption  for  which  no 
person  who  understands  the  difficulty  of  the  municipal 
problem  in  the  United  States  would  be  willing  to  stand 
responsible.  The  reason  for  this  becomes  obvious 
when  we  remember  that  no  city  has  had  experience 
with  the  system  extending  beyond  a  single  decade. 
Experience  would  seem  to  say  that  the  ultimate  suc- 
cess of  municipal  system  depends  upon  the  character 
of  the  men  who  administer  it,  which  is  to  say  that 

the  whole  problem  is  one  of  securing  competent  and 

7 


88       CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

public-spirited  men  in  public  office.  Now,  if  the  com- 
mission plan  is  so  constructed  as  to  attract  this  kind 
of  men  into  the  municipal  service,  as  past  experience 
would  seem  to  indicate,  it  must  be  adjudged  efficient. 
And  yet  it  may  be  said  with  certainty  that  the  ex- 
perience of  these  commission-governed  cities,  short 
and  insufficient  as  it  is  to  warrant  a  dogmatic  conclu- 
sion, contains  valuable  lessons  for  American  cities  that 
are  struggling  with  the  municipal  problem.  The  strik- 
ing results  which  have  been  obtained  wherever  the 
new  form  has  been  established  plead  eloquently  for 
the  simplification  of  a  system  which,  because  of  its 
decentralized  and  inefficient  form,  has  long  since 
proved  itself  inadequate  for  performing  municipal 
functions.  Whatever  may  be  the  future  municipal 
system  in  the  United  States,  we  may  reasonably  pre- 
dict that  it  will  at  least  contain  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  the  commission  plan,  namely,  a  centralization 
of  administrative  power  and  responsibility. 


CHAPTER   VI 

PROVISIONS  OF  COMMISSION  GOVERNMENTS  ANALYZED  ^ 

In  November,  1909,  when  Dr.  Ernest  S.  Bradford 
presented  his  first  paper  to  the  National  Municipal 
League  on  the  government  of  cities  by  commission, 
he  reported  fifty  cities  as  operating  or  ready  to  operate 
under  the  system.  To-day  there  are.  one  hundred  and 
fifty-five  such  cities,  not  including  St.  John,  New 
Brunswick,  which  has  just  adopted  it. 

As  Dr.  Bradford  pointed  out  in  the  paper  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Buffalo  meeting  of  the  National  Mu- 
nicipal League  on  "  A  Comparison  of  Commission 
Government  to  Date,"  which  constitutes  this  chapter: 
"If  every  week  continues  to  see  a  new  city  added 
to  the  list,  it  will  not  be  long  before  a  majority  of 
our  American  municipalities  will  be  governed  by  a 
small  'board,  elected  at  large  and  exercising  adequate 
power  under  certain  restraining  *  checks,'  while  New 
York,  Chicago,  Boston,  and  our  other  large  cities  will 
be  actively  discussing  proper  methods  of  applying  it 
to  metropolitan  conditions." 

'  See  papers  of  Dr.  Bradford  in  the  Cincinnati  and  Buffalo  Pro- 
ceedings. 

89 


90       CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

During  1910,  cities  secured  commission  charters, 
or  states  passed  general  acts  permitting  municipalities 
to  adopt  the  commission  form  as  follows :  ^ 

Kentucky,  Illinois,  South  Carolina,  and  Louisiana 
passed  acts  under  which  the  cities  of  Lexington,  Ky., 
Columbia,  S.  C,  and  Shreveport,  La.,  have  already 
voted  to  operate. 

In  Kansas,  the  cities  of  Topeka,  Coffeyville,  Par- 
sons, Pittsburg,  Marion,  Cherryvale,  lola,  Wellington, 
Emporia,  Abilene,  Newton,  Girard,  Neodesha,  and 
Caldwell  installed  the  plan. 

Seven  additional  cities  in  Texas  took  advantage  of 
a  state  law  permitting  any  municipality  of  less  than 
10,000  to  adopt  it  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  electors: 
Kennedy,  Aransas  Pass,  Harlinger,  Barry,  Lyford, 
Port  Lavaca,  and  Marble  Falls. 

In  Iowa,  Keokuk  and  Burlington  began  operating 
and  Sioux  City,  Marshalltown,  and  Fort  Dodge  voted 
to  also  follow  the  example  of  Des  IMoines  and  Cedar 
Rapids. 

In  Oklahoma,  McAlester,  Muskogee,  El  Reno, 
Bartlesville,  Sapulpa,  Miami,  and  Chichasha  were 
brought  into  line. 

Vermillion,  S.  D.,  Mankato,  Minn.,  Eau  Claire, 
Wis.,  Tacoma,  Wash.,  Lynn,  Mass.,  Modesto,  Cal., 
and  High  Point,  N.  C,  are  recent  acquisitions.  Hat- 
tiesburg,  Miss.,  began  operating  during  1910,  although 
it  voted  in  1909.  In  Oakland,  Cal.,  the  board  of  free- 
holders  reported   a   commission   charter,    which    was 

1  See  Chapter  XV  for  the  developments  of  191 1. 


PROVISIONS 


91 


adopted  in  the  present  year  and  approved  by  the  state 
legislature.^ 

The  results  of  those  cities  which  have  had  the  plan 
for  two  or  three  or  five  or  nine  years  are  so  unmis- 
takably favorable,  Dr.  Bradford  declares,  that  an 
impartial  investigator  cannot  but  be  impressed.  Leg- 
islative committees  opposed  to  the  plan  in  advance, 
keen  newspaper  men,  doubting  anything  which  pur- 
ports to  really  change  the  usual  bad  municipal  con- 
ditions, earnest  but  skeptical  lawyers,  students  of 
government,  and  hard-headed  business  men  have  all 
visited  Galveston  and  Houston  and  Dallas,  Des  Moines, 
Cedar  Rapids,  Leavenworth,  and  other  commission 
cities,  only  to  be  convinced  against  their  will  of  the 
improvement  wrought  and  to  go  home  to  advocate 
the  adoption  of  the  system  in  their  own  towns. ^ 

It  is  sufficient  in  this  connection  to  note  that  a 
study  of  the  plan  for  three  years,  including  corre- 
spondence with  cities,  a  careful  analysis  of  their  char- 
ters, and  personal  visits  to  the  most  important  cities 
— Galveston,  Houston,  Des  Moines,  Cedar  Rapids, 
Huntington,  W.  Va.,  Keokuk,  Memphis,  and  others — 
interviewing  citizens  of  all  types  in  these  cities,  atten- 
dance at  meetings  of  the  commissions,  and  examina- 
tion of  records  and  annual  reports,  warrants  Dr. 
Bradford  in  making  what  he  properly  describes  as  a 
conservative  statement  that  since  the  introduction  of 
the  commission  form  there  has  been  a  marked  increase 
in  efficiency  in  municipal  finances  and  in  the  care  of 

^  For  a  complete  list  of  cities  to  date,  see  Chapter  XV. 

*  For  a  discussion  of  the  results,  see  Chapters  XI,  XII,  XIII,  XIV. 


92 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


streets,  including  paving  and  lighting;  decided  prog- 
ress in  the  administration  of  the  police  and  .health 
departments,  though  to  a  less  degree  than  in  finance 
and  engineering;  and  a  more  satisfactory  operation 
of  municipal  utilities  and  regulation  of  public-service 
corporations  than  under  the  aldermanic  plan.  There 
appears  to  have  been  improvement  in  almost  every 
field  of  municipal  activity  in  the  commission  cities. 
though  differing  in  different  localities.  There  can  be 
no  question  that  the  plan  has  greatly  aroused  public 
interest  in  municipal  affairs,  has  inspired  the  people 
with  a  heretofore  unknown  confidence  in  their  local 
governing  body,  and  seems  to  be  promoting  that  com- 
prehensive view  of  the  urban  center  and  its  needs 
which  is  manifested  in  the  beginning  of  a  "  city  plan  " 
for  Dallas,  Cedar  Rapids,  and  other  municipalities. 

But  this  is  outside  of  the  scope  of  the  present  chap- 
ter, and  Dr.  Bradford  passes  to  a  consideration  of  the 
features  found  in  the  many  commission  charters  and 
state  laws,  their  analysis  and  comparison,  and  a  dis- 
cussion of  their  respective  excellences  and  defects. 

The  first  feature  which  appears  from  even  a  cur- 
sory examination  of  the  commission  laws  and  charters 
is  the  small  number  of  members  of  the  governing 
body. 

The  usual  number  of  members  of  the  commission 
is  five,  that  being  the  number  in  the  boards  of  Gal- 
veston, Houston,  Des  Moines,  Dallas,  Cedar  Rapids, 
and  in  most  of  the  cities  of  Texas,  Iowa,  and  the  Da- 
kotas.  Three  is  the  next  most  common  number,  oc- 
curring usually  in  the  smaller  cities ;  particularly  under 


PROVISIONS 


93 


the  Kansas  law  for  the  cities  of  the  second  class  (of 
less  than  15,000  population)  ;  in  Iowa,  for  cities  of  be- 
tween 7,000  and  25,000  population;  and  in  the  Texas 
general  act  which  applies  to  cities  of  less  than  10,000 
population.  The  Wisconsin  law  makes  three  the  num- 
ber of  the  commissioners  for  all  cities  which  may  adopt 
the  plan.  The  New  Mexico  law  allows  from  three  to 
live  commissioners,  while  the  Mississippi  statute  pro- 
vides "  three  or  five."  Huntington  and  Bluefield,  W. 
Va.,  and  Palestine,  Tex.,  have  a  board  of  four,  includ- 
ing the  mayor.  Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  has  six;  Lewiston, 
Idaho,  seven;  and  Highpoint,  N.  C,  nine  commis- 
sioners. The  table  on  the  following  page  summarizes 
the  provisions  in  the  various  cities  on  this  point,  forty- 
six  out  of  eighty  cities  tabulated  having  a  commission 
or  council  of  five. 

The  number  of  members  which  a  working  board 
should  have  is  based  upon  two  main  considerations — 
the  number  which  can  well  be  elected  by  voters  at  any 
one  time  and  the  natural  limit  to  the  efficient  number 
of  any  working  board. 

Of  these,  the  first  is  most  important.  Our  Ameri- 
can ballots  are  overloaded  with  the  names  of  can- 
didates :  so  many  offices  are  to  be  filled  that  it  is 
impossible  for  anyone  but  a  politician  to  inform  him- 
self as  to  the  merits  of  each  of  the  aspirants  for  the 
many  places  to  be  filled.  The  multiplicity  of  elective 
officers  drives  men  into  voting  straight  party  tickets, 
a  cross  at  the  head  of  the  column  which  contains  a 
familiar  name  or  two  being  an  easy  relief  from  wad- 
ing through  the  long  list  below.     A  natural  remedy  is 


94 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 


NuiEBER  OF   COMMISSIOXERS 


THREE. 


Denison,  Tex. 
Greenville,  Tex. 
Marshall,  Tex. 
Barry,  Tex. 
Harlingen,  Tex. 
Kennedy,  Tex. 
Aransas  Pass,  Tex. 
McAlester,  Okla. 
BartlesviUe,  Okla. 
Baker,  Ore. 
Kansas  cities  of  2d 

class  (13  cities), 
Iowa  cities  of 

7-25,oc»  (3). 
Wisconsin  (i). 


FOUR. 

Palestine,  Tex. 
Huntington,  W.  Va. 
Bluefield,  W.  \'a. 
Sapulpa,  Okla. 


FIVE. 

Galveston,  Tex. 
Houston,  Tex. 
Dallas,  Tex. 
El  Paso,  Tex. 
Austin,  Tex. 
Waco,  Tex. 
Corpus  Christi,  Tex. 
AmarUlo,  Tex. 
Muskogee,  Okla. 
Memphis. 
Haverhill,  !Mass. 
Gloucester,  Mass. 
Lynn,  Mass. 
Colorado  Springs. 
Grand  Junction,  Col. 
Berkeley,  Cal. 
Oakland,  Cal. 
Tacoma,  Wash. 
Kansas   cities  of    ist 

class  (7  cities). 
Iowa   cities    of    over 

25,000  (4). 
North  Dakota  (3). 
South  Dakota  (6). 
South  Carolina  (6). 
Kentucky  (i). 


SIX. 


Fort  Worth,  Tex. 
San  Diego,  Cal. 


SEVEN. 

Lewiston,  Idaho. 


NINE. 

High  Point,  N.  C. 


'  The  Minnesota  law  contains  no  provision  as  to  the  number  of 
commissioners;  New  Mexico  provides  3-5  commissioners;  Mississippi, 
3  or  5. 


PROVISIONS 


95 


to  reduce  the  number  of  names  on  the  ballot.  Why 
should  not  five  men  represent  a  city  more  ably  than 
twenty?  It  is  not  the  number  but  the  acts  of  the 
council  which  determines  whether  or  not  they  are 
truly  representative.  In  the  past,  it  has  been  assumed 
that  merely  allowing  the  people  to  vote  for  their 
officers  would  insure  democratic  government;  it  is 
now  recognized  that  democratic  government  means 
government  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  peo- 
ple and  that  the  people  must  therefore  be  given  easy 
means  of  control  of  their  officials. 

One  method  of  control  is  to  provide  for  elections 
at  any  time  that  a  real  need  arises  instead  of  only  at 
stated  intervals ;  the  "  recall  "  is  merely  the  privilege 
of  electing  a  new  and  better  official  sooner  than  usual. 
Another  method  is  to  allow  the  people  to  vote  directly 
on  measures  as  well  as  on  men;  heretofore,  the  two 
have  been  tied  up  together,  and  the  only  way  to  secure 
one  or  two  needed  laws  was  to  vote  for  the  men  who 
stood  for  these  laws  but  who  also  possibly  stood  for 
others  not  so  desirable.  Another  and  very  simple 
method  is  to  reduce  the  number  of  elective  officers  to 
a  reasonable  number,  small  enough  so  that  the  electors 
may  know  something  of  each  man  for  whom  he  votes. 
The  "  short  ballot "  is  most  important — much  more 
important  than  is  recognized  by  many,  and  so  simple 
that  it  should  be  instantly  welcomed  as  a  great  addi- 
tion to  the  list  of  effective  methods  of  securing  good 
government.^ 

1  3ee  Chapter  III. 


96       CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

Prompt  action  is  one  of  the  possibilities  realized 
under  a  small  commission.  Three  instances  may  be 
cited  from  Cedar  Rapids.  A  well-known  real-estate 
agent,  and  a  former  member  of  the  city  council  for 
years,  wished  recently  to  get  a  plat  of  the  new  sub- 
division approved  for  his  firm;  it  took  one  day  to 
get  it.  Under  the  old  plan  it  would  have  required  six 
months ;  at  least  that  was  the  time  taken  to  get  through 
his  last  previous  plat.  A  local  independent  telephone 
company  wished  to^  secure  a  new  franchise  allowing 
it  to  put  its  wires  underground  and  to  make  certain 
reconstruction;  this  franchise  was  introduced  (under 
the  old  regime)  in  May  of  one  year  and  was  reported 
out  by  the  committee  in  March  of  the  next  year. 
Such  delay  is  impossible  under  the  present  system. 
The  Douglas  Starch  Works  wished  to  have  an  unim- 
portant street  vacated.  Application  was  made  to  the 
council,  and  approved  the  same  day.  Similar  inci- 
dents have  occurred  in  many  cities.  The  board  is 
small  enough  to  act  without  delay. 

The  small  council  or  commission  is  thus  best,  both 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  voters  who  must  select 
from  that  of  the  board  itself,  which  must  administer, 
and  from  that  of  the  citizens  whose  welfare  demands 
prompt  action  from  municipal  authority. 

The  general  considerations  tending  toward  a  small 
board  are  further  modified  by  the  number  of  func- 
tions to  be  performed  by  the  municipal  governing 
body. 

The  various  duties  naturally  group  themselves  into 
four  or  five  departments.      Supervision  and  general 


PROVISIONS 


97 


oversight  has  been,  in  most  of  the  cities,  assigned  to 
the  mayor-commissioner,  while  finances,  poHce  and 
fire  matters,  and  streets,  are  well-marked  divisions  to 
each  of  which  a  commissioner  has  been  almost  uni- 
formly assigned.  The  fifth  commissioner  has  been 
given  charge  of  light  and  water,  or  waterworks  and 
sewerage,  or  some  other  residual,  but  important,  field 
of  activity.  Galveston  has  besides  the  mayor-presi- 
dent, commissioners  of  finance  and  revenue,  police 
and  fire,  street  and  public  property,  and  waterworks 
and  sewerage.  The  charters  of  Dallas  and  Fort 
Worth  and  the  laws  of  North  Dakota  and  South  Da- 
kota accept  the  same  divisions.  Houston  divides  its 
municipal  administration  into  finance  and  revenue, 
police  and  fire,  streets,  bridges,  and  public  grounds, 
and  water,  light,  and  health,  besides  the  mayor,  who 
has  general  oversight.  The  Iowa  law  places  the 
mayor  in  charge  of  public  affairs,  while  the  other  de- 
partments are  accounts  and  finance,  public  safety, 
streets  and  public  improvements,  and  parks  and  public 
property.  Where  there  are  only  three  commissioners, 
duties  are  consolidated;  in  the  Kansas  law  for  the 
cities  of  the  second  class,  the  mayor  is  given  charge 
of  police,  fire  and  health,  and  the  other  two  members 
have  finance  and  revenue,  and  streets  and  public  utili- 
ties, respectively.  The  new  charter  of  Tacoma, 
Wash.,  well  drawn  on  the  whole,  places  the  mayor  in 
charge  of  public  affairs,  health  and  sanitation;  and 
provides,  besides,  for  the  departments  of  finance; 
public  safety;  public  works,  streets,  improvements, 
and  property;  and  light  and  water.     The  Kentucky 


98       CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

law,  passed  in  19  lo,  and  applying  as  yet  only  to  cities 
of  the  second  class,  provides  for  departments  of  pub- 
lic affairs  (in  charge  of  the  mayor),  public  finance, 
public  safety,  public  works,  and  public  property. 
High  Point,  N.  C,  wMth  a  commission  of  nine,  has 
besides  the  mayor,  commissioners  of  finance  and  reve- 
nue, police  and  fire,  streets  and  cemeteries,  water- 
works and  sewerage,  public  buildings  and  property, 
lights  and  lighting,  a  purchasing  commissioner  and  an 
auditing  commissioner.  San  Diego,  Cal.,  separates 
the  police  from  the  fire  department,  alloting  its  five 
commissioners  to  finance,  ways  and  means;  police, 
health,  and  morals ;  public  streets  and  buildings ;  fire 
and  sewers;  and  water. 

In  place,  then  of  the  usual  council,  consisting  some- 
times of  two  bodies  and  containing  from  ten  to  fifty 
or  more  members,  there  is  substituted  a  single  board 
of  five  or  three.  This  small  board  comprises,  in  most 
cases,  all  the  elective  officials  chosen  in  the  city. 
Officers,  such  as  city  engineer,  assessor,  treasurer,  and 
others  of  that  nature,  elected  under  the  aldermanic 
plan,  are  appointed  by  the  commission.  Only  in  a 
few  exceptions  are  officers  other  than  the  commis- 
sioners elected,  not  counting  school  directors,  boards 
of  education  and  library  trustees  which  are  so  gen- 
erally put  in  a  class  by  themselves  at  elections. 

In  this  new  small  council  the  mayor  appears  merely 
as  the  chief  member  and  presiding  officer.  In  most 
cases  his  veto  disappears.  He  is  but  one  of  the  five, 
and  votes  as  one.  Whether  the  new  body  be  called  a 
board  of  commissioners,  as  in  Galveston,  Dallas,  Fort 


PROVISIONS 


99 


Worth,  and  the  Kansas  cities,  or  a  council,  retaining 
the  old  name  with  the  new  provisions,  as  in  Des 
Moines,  Colorado  Springs,  Tacoma,  and  elsewhere, 
the  substance  is  the  same.  It  is  a  small  board,  easier 
to  elect,  and  after  election  easier  to  hold  responsible, 
and  more  prompt  in  action.  Large  bodies  move 
slowly.  The  danger  of  too  rapid  action  is  obviated 
by  transferring  the  power  of  veto  to  the  voters  as  a 
whole,  by  means  of  the  referendum;  vigor  and  expe- 
dition in  dealing  with  the  many  administrative  details 
of  city  government  are  better  supplied  by  a  small 
board  with  few  members. 

The  second  feature  of  all  the  forms  of  commission 
government  is  the  abolition  of  wards  as  election  units. 
Each  commissioner  is  voted  for  by  all  the  electors, 
not  merely  those  from  one  ward,  and  is  responsible 
to  the  entire  city  rather  than  to  a  section  of  it.  The 
elective  principle  is  retained  but  made  to  apply  to  a 
larger  unit. 

Every  commission  charter  and  law  has  this  pro- 
vision, either  specifically  stated  or  enforced  in  actual 
practice.  The  commissioners  are  to  be  elected  "  at 
large,"  in  the  Tacoma  and  other  late  charters,  and  in 
those  of  Houston  and  the  other  Texas  cities  which 
adopted  the  plan  among  the  first.  "  By  the  qualified 
voters  of  the  whole  city,"  is  the  provision  in  Hunting- 
ton; the  commissioners  "  may  be  residents  of  any  part 
of  the  city,"  says  the  Haverhill  charter.  This  element 
of  the  commission  plan  is  not  confined,  it  is  true,  to 
cities  which  have  the  commission  plan;  Boise,  Idaho, 
for  example,  while  not  strictly  a  commission  city,  pro- 


icx)     CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

vides  for  the  election  of  a  board  of  five  "  on  a  general 
ticket,"  Many  other  cities  have  incorporated  this  pro- 
vision in  their  charter;  but  it  is  a  characteristic  of  the 
commission  form. 

From  the  side  of  the  voters,  the  board  members 
are  more  truly  representative  than  formerly;  each 
voter  wields  more  power,  since  he  directly  votes  for 
all  five,  instead  of  for  only  one  or  two  of  twenty 
councilmen.  Better  men  can  be  elected,  too,  when  all 
the  voters  make  the  selection;  the  influence  of  a  bad 
ward  is  less  when  lost  in  the  mass  of  other  votes  than 
when  it  can  crystallize  by  electing  a  bad  ward  alder- 
man. Better-known  men  are  selected  and  men  of 
broader  outlook  and  larger  caliber.  After  election, 
the  commissioners  are  responsible  to  all  the  citizens, 
and  will  naturally  expect  to  care  for  the  interests  of 
the  city  as  a  whole.  The  trouble  with  the  system  of 
ward  representation  is  that  the  individual  ward  re- 
ceives attention — at  least,  those  wards  with  aldermen 
most  efficient  in  "  trading  "  and  arranging  "  deals  " 
with  fellow-members — but  the  interests  of  the  city  as 
a  whole  suffer.  "  To  secure  one  more  electric  light 
in  my  ward,"  said  a  former  councilman,  "  it  is  neces- 
sary to  agree  to  vote  for  one  more  arc  in  each  of  the 
other  seven  wards."  So  the  city  installed  and  paid 
for  eight  arc  lamps  where  only  one  was  needed.  The 
same  is  true  of  sewer  extensions,  new  street  paving, 
grading,  water  mains.  Des  Moines,  Houston,  and 
nearly  every  city  which  had  the  ward  system,  offered 
flagrant  examples  of  this  vicious  system  of  "  part  rep- 
resentation."    Now  the  commission  form  changes  all 


PROVISIONS  loi 

this.  The  entire  body  of  voters  chooses  the  board  of 
five  and  know  who  the  men  are  for.  whom  they  are 
voting. 

The  danger  of  having  most  or  all  of  the  commis- 
sioners elected  from  the  same  ward  or  section  has  not 
materialized  in  the  cities  which  have  adopted  the  elec- 
tion at  large.  Des  Moines,  divided  by  the  Des  Moines 
River  into  East  and  West  sides,  elected  for  its  first 
commission  two  from  one  side  and  three  from  the 
other;  and  there  has  been  no  attempt  discernible  on 
the  part  of  the  West  side  councilmen  to  unduly  favor 
their  part  of  the  city.  They  are  accountable  to  the 
entire  city  and  therefore  act  for  the  whole  city.  In 
Cedar  Rapids,  similarly  divided  by  the  Cedar  River, 
only  one  alderman  (commissioner)  was  chosen  from 
the  West  side,  but  he  states  that  he  had  no  difficulty 
in  securing  adequate  provision  for  the  needs  of  that 
section.  Bohemian-Americans,  constituting  probably 
a  fourth  of  the  population  of  Cedar  Rapids,  have  not 
a  member  of  their  nationality  on  the  board  of  com- 
missioners, yet  persons  of  Bohemian  parentage  have 
been  appointed  to  places  in  the  city  government,  on 
their  merits,  and  their  section  of  the  city  has  received 
its  share  of  appropriation  for  paving,  water  mains, 
and  street  lighting.  One  of  the  first  things  done  by 
the  new  commission  in  Cedar  Rapids  was  to  extend 
sewerage  and  water  connection  to  a  large  Bohemian 
Catholic  church,  which  had  never  been  able  to  secure 
them  under  the  former  council.  Nor  has  there  been 
favoritism  as  to  wards  in  Houston  or  Galveston  or 
Huntington  or  Leavenworth  or  Wichita  or  Lewiston 


I02      CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

or  Dallas,  so  far  as  can  be  learned.  The  fact  that 
every  voter  in  the  city  is  a  constituent  of  each  com- 
missioner tends  to  correct  any  danger  from  possible 
overrepresentation  of  any  one  section. 

If  election  at  large  rather  than  by  wards  tends  to 
result  in  the  choice  of  better  councilmen  (commis- 
sioners), the  payment  to  them  of  reasonable  salaries 
makes  it  possible  for  them  to  give  to  their  municipal 
duties  their  entire  time  or  such  part  of  their  time  as 
may  be  required,  without  too  great  financial  sacrifice. 
Whatever  the  case  in  England  and  Germany  and 
France,  American  municipal  directors  must  be  paid. 
Whether  they  should  give  their  entire  time  or  not  is 
more  of  a  question.  The  salaries  provided  in  the  vari- 
ous state  laws  are  usually  arranged  on  a  sliding  scale, 
varying  with  the  size  of  the  city  to  be  governed;  the 
charters  specifically  provide,  in  most  instances,  the 
amount  to  be  paid.  The  range  of  salaries  is  consid- 
erable; the  usual  provision  is  for  an  annual  amount, 
to  be  drawn  in  monthly  installments.  A  comparison 
of  the  salaries  of  city  commissioners  (or  councilmen), 
including  the  mayor,  would  be  of  interest,  but  is  of 
minor  moment  and  is  omitted  here  in  order  to  present 
more  important  features. 

In  all  Texas  cities  the  term  of  the  commissioners  is 
two  years,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Iowa  law,  the  Kansas 
law  for  cities  of  the  first  class  and  the  charters  of  Lew- 
iston,  Idaho,  High  Point,  N.  C,  and  Haverhill,  ■Mass. 
The  Kansas  law  for  cities  of  the  second  class  provides 
for  a  three-year  term,  one  commissioner  being  chosen 
each  year.     The  term  of  office  of  the  commissioners 


PROVISIONS 


103 


of  Huntington,  W.  Va.,  as  well  as  of  members  of 
the  Citizen's  Board,  which  is  provided  as  a  check,  is 
three  years.  Under  the  laws  of  North  Dakota,  South 
Carolina,  Memphis,  and  Bluefield,  W.  Va.,  the  term 
is  four  years,  while  in  South  Dakota  the  term  is  five 
years,  and  in  Wisconsin  six  years  for  mayor  and  four 
years  for  each  of  the  two  councilmen.  In  Berkeley, 
Cal.,  the  mayor  and  auditor  are  elected  for  two  years, 
while  every  two  years  two  councilmen  and  two  school 
directors  are  elected  for  a  four-year  term,  there  being 
a  mayor  and  four  councilmen  besides  the  auditor.  In 
Mississippi  and  Minnesota  there  is  no  provision  as  to 
term  or  method  of  election  further  than  to  specify 
election  at  large. 

The  continued  reelection  of  commissioners  has 
lengthened  their  actual  term  in  office  in  several  cities, 
particularly  in  Galveston  and  Houston. 

All  of  the  commissioners  are  usually  elected  at  the 
same  time,  but  there  are  exceptions,  as  already  seen. 
In  Marshall,  Tex.,  two  commissioners  are  elected  one 
year  for  a  two-years'  term,  and  the  next  year  the 
chairman  (mayor)  and  city  secretary  for  a  two-year 
term.  In  Lewiston,  Idaho,  the  mayor  and  three  coun- 
cilmen are  elected  each  odd  year  for  two  years;  and 
in  each  even  year  the  other  three  councilmen  for  two 
years.  In  Bluefield,  W.  Va.,  two  (of  four  commis- 
sioners) are  elected  for  four  years;  two  years  later, 
the  other  two  are  elected  for  four  years.  Similarly 
in  Grand  Junction,  Colorado  Springs,  and  Tacoma, 
and  in  the  laws  of  North  Dakota  and  South  Carolina 
the  mayor  is  elected  with  two  commissioners  every 
8 


104     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

four  years  for  a  four-year  term  and  the  other  two 
commissioners  elected  two  years  later  for  a  four-year 
term.  Under  the  Wisconsin  law  the  mayor  holds  office 
for  six  years  and  two  commissioners  for  four  years 
each,  one  being  elected  alternate  second  year.  In 
South  Dakota  one  commissioner  of  the  five  is  elected 
each  year  for  a  five-year  term.  In  Kentucky  the 
mayor  is  elected  for  four  years  and  the  other  four 
commissioners  for  two  years  each;  two  years  later,  a 
police  judge  is  elected  for  four  years  and  the  four 
commissioners  for  two  years  again.  In  Haverhill 
the  mayor,  two  aldermen,  and  two  members  of  the 
school  committee  are  elected  each  even-numbered  year 
for  two  years,  while  the  two  other  aldermen  and  the 
two  other  members  of  the  school  committee  are  elected 
each  odd-numbered  year  for  the  same  term. 

The  qualifications  for  commissioners  range  from 
the  provisions  of  the  Texas  cities,  requiring  each 
member  of  the  governing  board  to  be  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  a  qualified  voter,  a  resident  of  the  city 
previously  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  in  some 
charters,  of  twenty-five  years  of  age,  a  property 
owner,  and  not  in  arrears  for  taxes,  and  in  one  in- 
stance, not  a  stockholder  or  director  of  any  public- 
service  corporation  having  a  city  contract  or  franchise, 
to  that  of  Grand  Junction,  Col.,  where  the  only  pro- 
vision is  that  the  commissioner  shall  be  a  qualified 
elector. 

The  requirements  demanded  of  the  commissioners 
besides  the  prescribed  qualifications,  include  frequent- 
ly the  giving  of  a  bond  and  prohibit  the  holding  of 


PROVISIONS 


105 


more  than  one  office  or  of  any  office  the  compensation 
of  which  has  been  increased  during  the  commissioner's 
term.  The  most  definite  and  drastic  provision  and  one 
found  in  the  majority  of  the  commission  charters,  is 
that  prohibiting  a  commissioner  or  councilman  from 
having  any  financial  interest  in  city  contracts.  The 
receiving  of  free  passes,  tickets,  or  gifts  of  substan- 
tial value  from  public  service  or  other  corporations 
is  also  prohibited  in  many  instances.  These  are  no 
essential  part  of  a  commission  charter  but  are  usually 
present. 

As  to  whether  the  commissioners  should  be  re- 
quired to  give  all  their  time  to  their  municipal  duties, 
or  only  part  time,  there  is  a  decided  conflict  of  opin- 
ion. Sentiment  in  Galveston  strongly  favors  requir- 
ing only  part  time,  since  very  able  men  can  be  secured 
as  commissioners,  if  they  can  be  allowed  to  devote 
only  a  small  share  of  their  attention  to  city  business. 
On  the  other  hand,  Houston,  Des  Moines,  and  other 
cities  require  the  entire  time  of  their  council  members 
(commissioners).  This  provision,  in  connection  with 
longer  terms  of  office,  may  tend  to  make  municipal 
commissionship  become  a  profession,  since  an  able 
man  cannot  afford  to  leave  his  business  and  devote  all 
of  his  time  to  city  affairs  if  he  is  likely  to  be  retired 
at  the  end  of  two  or  four  years.  The  commissioner  be- 
comes more  experienced  and  valuable  the  more  time  he 
gives  to  the  work  and  the  longer  he  is  a  commissioner. 
The  tendency  is  strongly  in  the  direction  of  longer 
terms  and  with  the  advent  of  the  commission  plan  gen- 
erally throughout  the  country,  a  new  and  valuable  field 


io6     CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

of  governmental  service  will  be  established,  as  in  Ger- 
many, of  which  men  will  make  a  vocation,  and  which 
will  take  the  principal  part  of  their  energy  and  time. 

The  municipal  business  of  most  small  cities  does 
not  need  the  services  of  five  men  or  three  men  for 
seven  or  eight  hours  each  day.  Part  time  is  now  the 
rule,  and  is  probably  best.  The  present  council  system 
offers  an  extreme  example  of  service  for  part  time 
only;  night  sessions  are  usual,  and  meetings  often 
only  once  a  mOnth.  Much  more  attention  may  well 
be  required  and  still  not  all  the  day  of  the  municipal 
director  may  be  occupied  in  the  care  of  city  affairs. 

If  the  larger  city  were  fairly  sure  of  being  able  to 
elect  some  of  the  best  business  men  to  its  governing 
board,  as  in  Galveston,  it  might  be  best  to  provide  that 
members  could  be  elected  at  a  low  salary  to  give  part 
time,  or  at  a  high  salary  to  give  all  of  their  time,  that 
point  to  be  settled  at  the  time  of  nomination.  If  the 
voters  preferred  Mr.  A,  a  most  capable  bank  manager 
or  manufacturer,  who  was  willing  to  give  part  of  his 
time  at  $3,000  a  year,  rather  than  Mr.  B,  a  less  able 
man,  though  capable,  at  $6,000  a  year,  to  give  all  of 
his  time,  let  them  so  indicate  on  the  nominating  ballot. 
Besides  the  names  of  candidates,  columns  for  "  time 
required  "  and  "  salary,"  opposite  each  name  would 
appear  on  the  ballot  in  that  case.  This  plan  would 
not  shut  out  the  first-class  business  man,  whose  expe- 
rience would  be  most  helpful  to  the  city,  but  who  can- 
not afford  for  four  or  five  thousand  dollars  a  year 
to  devote  all  of  his  energies  to  the  city's  affairs  while 
he  can  make  several  times  as  much  in  his  own  business. 


PROVISIONS 


107 


The  present  time  requirements  in  commission  cities 
are  as  follows : 

Time  Required  of  Commissioners 
Date  of  grant  of  charter  or  passage  of  state  law  in  parenthesis 


Entire  Time. 
Houston  (1905). 1 
Dallas  (1907). 
Fort  Worth  (1907). 
El  Paso  (1907).'^ 
Greenville  (1907). 
Grand    Junction, 

Col.  (1909). 
McAlester,  Okla. 
Kansas  (cities  of  ist 

class).  ^ 
New  Mexico.*  ^' 
Wisconsin  (1909)." 


Part  Time. 
Galveston  (1901)." 
MarshaU,  Tex. 

(1909).' 
Corpus  Christi 

(1909). 
Denison  (1907).* 
High   Point,   N.   C. 

(1909)-' 
Colorado  Springs 

(1909)." 
Tacoma." 
Huntington,  W.  Va. 

(1909).'" 
Blueneld,    W.    Va. 

(1909).!'' 
Muskogee,    Okla. 

(1910).* 
Oakland,  CaH* 
South  CaroUna 

(1910).* 


Summary—  7  char- 
ters, 3  general  laws— 
in  all,  23  cities. 


1 1  charters  and 
I  state  law— in  all, 
12  cities. 


No  Provision. 
Austin  (1909). 
Palestine  (1909). 
Waco  (1909). 
AmarUlo  (1909). 
Lewiston,    Idaho 

(1907). 
Memphis  (1909). 
Gloucester  (1908). 
Haverhill  (1908). 
Lynn  (1910). 
Colorado    Springs 

(1909). 
Berkeley,  Cal. 

(1909). 
San  Diego,  Cal. 

(1909). 
Kansas  (cities  of  2d 

class)  (1909). 12 
Minnesota  (i909).i3 
North  Dakota 

(1907)." 
Mississippi  (1908)." 
South  Dakota." 
Louisiana  (1910). 
Iowa  (1907).* 

12  charters  and  6 
state  laws—  in  all,  38 
cities. 


Note. — For  references,  see  page  108. 


io8     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

The  most  vital  and  effective  element  in  the  com- 
mission form  of  government  is  not  the  small  number 
of  the  governing  body,  as  important  as  that  feature 
is,  nor  the  election  of  the  members  at  large,  helpful 
though  that  provision  is  proving  to  be,  but  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  powers  conferred  upon  the  commission, 
the  assignment  of  each  commissioner  to  a  department, 
and  the  sufficiency  of  the  checks  provided  to  assure 
popular  control.     These  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  ele- 

*  All  the  commissioners,  including  the  mayor,  give  their  entire 
time. 

*  Mayor  gives  entire  time;  the  four  aldermen,  not  less  than  6 
hours  a  day. 

'  In  cities  of  over  60,000  population  all  the  commissioners  give 
their  entire  time;  in  cities  of  30,000-60,000,  mayor  gives  at  least  6 
hours  a  day,  apphes  to  cities  of  Leavenworth,  Topeka,  Wichita, 
Kansas  City  (Kan.),  Hutchinson,  Pittsburg  and  Emporia. 

*  AppUes  to  Des  Moines,  Cedar  Rapids,  Sioux  City,  Keokuk, 
Burlington,  Marshalltown  and  Fort  Dodge.  Entire  time  is  given  in 
many  of  the  cities,  according  to  data  received;  but  there  is  no  pro- 
vision to  that  effect  in  state  law. 

'  Commissioners  "shall  not  be  otherwise  employed." 

'  Mayor,  6  hours  a  day.  No  provision  as  to  other  commissioners; 
they  are  supposed  in  actual  practice  to  give  an  hour  a  day. 

'  Mayor,  entire  time;  other  commissioners,  as  much  time  as 
necessary. 

'  As  much  time  as  necessary. 

*  Regular  office  hours. 

"  Public  office  and  stated  hours. 

"  No  provision  in  its  law,  but  only  part  time  in  practice.  Ap- 
plies to  Pierre,  Huron,  Yankton,  Rapid  City,  Dell  Rapids,  Sioux 
Falls  and  Vermillion. 

"  Applies  to  thirteen  cities. 

"  Applies  to  one  city. 

"  Applies  to  three  cities. 

"  Charter  framed,  but  not  yet  approved  by  legislature. 


PROVISIONS 


109 


ments,  as  they  have  been  numbered  here,  are  so  basic 
in  their  nature,  that  though  they  do  not  at  first  seem 
of  unusual  moment,  they  prove  upon  examination  to 
include  the  first  and  second  features,  already  noted, 
and  to  comprise  the  essence  of  two  broad  principles, 
which  are  both  present  in  the  term  "  responsible  au- 
thority." This  connotes  at  once  power  and  accounta- 
bility— the  capacity  to  accomplish  and  the  possibility 
of  a  penalty  for  a  failure  to  accomplish.  Election  at 
large  is  simply  a  kind  of  check  beforehand — a  method 
of  insuring  the  choice  of  men  who  will  represent  the 
city  as  a  whole,  rather  than  a  number  representing  a 
multiplicity  of  parts.  Provision  for  a  small  board  is 
the  same  sort  of  prior  restriction  in  order  that  voters 
may  choose  a  few  officials  intelligently  rather  than 
select,  without  thought,  a  large  number.  These  are 
but  parts  of  the  second  half  of  the  equation — methods 
of  enforcing  responsibility  by  determining  in  advance 
the  conditions  of  choosing  public  servants.  It  is  now 
proper  to  present  the  positive  side  of  government — 
that  of  the  powers  bestowed  upon  those  who  must  act 
in  a  collective  capacity — those  who  must  pass  laws  and 
administer  them  in  behalf  of  the  people.  What  pow- 
ers have  been  exercised,  in  cities,  under  the  mayor- 
and-council  plan,  and  what  under  the  newer  commis- 
sion system  may  fittingly  be  contrasted.  It  may  be 
that  here  will  be  found  some  explanation  of  the  un- 
usual success  which  has  so  far  attended  the  operation 
of  the  latter  method  of  government. 

In  the  United  States,  the  state  legislature  confers 
upon  cities  the  right  to  exercise  certain  functions,  these 


no     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

being  specified  usually  in  the  charter  granted  to  the 
city.  These  "  powers,"  or  more  correctly,  fields  of 
activity,  include  the  right  to  levy  taxes,  borrow  money, 
issue  bonds,  lay  out  streets,  establish  markets,  hospi- 
tals, libraries,  schools,  enact  building  regulations, 
grant  franchises,  and  in  many  cases,  acquire  and  oper- 
ate waterworks  and  other  public  utilities.  At  some 
time  in  the  future,  the  state  may  recognize  more 
clearly  a  proper  general  municipal  field,  and  it  may  not 
be  necessary  for  cities  to  have  specified  in  such  detail 
what  they  may  do ;  nor  to  have  to  go  to  the  legislature 
for  every  new  small  grant  of  municipal  power. ^  Home 
rule  for  cities,  however,  is  not  the  theme  of  this  dis- 
course, nor  does  the  field  of  activity  of  the  city  under 
the  commission  differ  from  that  under  the  ordinary 
council.  In  this  respect,  it  is  well  to  sharply  distin- 
guish the  "  powers  "  of  the  city — that  is,  the  fields  in 
which  it  may  act — from  the  "  powers  "  of  the  gov- 
erning body ;  that  is,  the  authority  which  it  may  exer- 
cise within  the  fields  of  activity  permitted  to  the  city. 
When  we  say  that  the  council  exercises  legislative 
power,  we  mean  that  it  makes  laws  (ordinances)  on 
those  subjects  which  the  state  allows  cities  to  control; 
administrative  power  means  the  right  to  enforce  or 
carry  out  those  laws  or  regulations  on  those  same  sub- 
jects. The  powers  of  the  council  are  greater  if  it  is 
allowed  to  exercise  both  administrative  and  legislative 
authority — and  perhaps  in  addition  the  power  to  ap- 


^  For  a  full  discussion  of  the  whole  subject  of  municipal  home 
mle,  see  Horace  E.  Deming's  "Government  of  American  Cities." 


PROVISIONS  III 

point  city  officials — than  if  it  exercises  legislative 
authority  only;  but  the  powers  of  the  city — that  is, 
the  field  within  which  it  can  act,  may  remain  the  same. 
What  is  meant  by  the  "  ample  powers  "  conferred  on 
the  small  commission  council  under  the  commission 
plan  is  that  this  small  board  exercises  not  only  the 
usual  ordinance-making  power,  but  also  oversees  the 
administrative  departments  of  the  city  and  appoints 
the  officers.  It  decides  (by  ordinance)  what  shall 
be.done,  appoints  the  men  to  do  it  (all  the  department 
subordinates  and  employees),  and  sees  that  it  is  done. 
Each  member  of  the  commission  is  the  chief  of  a  de- 
partment. The  board  exercises  administrative  control 
over  all  the  departments  by  being  itself  the  adminis- 
trative head  of  the  government,  subdividing  the  work 
among  its  members,  but  all  the  more  effectively  con- 
trolling action.  Ample  power  ?  It  recalls  the  business 
corporation. 

The  powers  of  the  commission  may  be  considered 
first  in  general  and  then  under  the  heads  of  ordinance 
power,  administrative  authority,  and  appointing  power 
(considered  broadly  and  including  powers  to  create 
new  offices,  fix  salaries,  and  prescribe  duties).  It 
should  be  remembered,  in  passing,  that  this  discussion 
does  not  properly  have  to  do  with  what  functions  the 
city  should  be  allowed  by  the  legislature  to  exercise, 
but  how  much  of  the  power  already  marked  out  as 
belonging  to  the  city  is  exercised  by  the  commission 
and  in  what  manner. 

By  most  charters  the  board  is  given,  in  general, 
the  powers  formerly  exercised  by  mayor  and  council 


112     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

and  the  heads  of  departments.  The  council  (commis- 
sion) under  the  Iowa  law  possesses  "  all  executive, 
legislative,  and  judicial  powers  and  duties  now  had, 
possessed,  and  exercised  by  the  mayor,  city  council, 
solicitor,  assessor,  treasurer,  auditor,  and  other  execu- 
tive and  administrative  officers,  ...  by  the  board  of 
public  works,  park  commissioners,  the  board  of  police 
and  fire  commissioners,"  etc.  "  The  board  of  com- 
missioners," runs  the  Kansas  law  for  cities  of  the  first 
class,  "  shall  constitute  the  municipal  government  of 
such  city  and  shall  be  the  successors  of  the  mayor  and 
council " ;  and  "  said  board  of  commissioners  shall 
have  and  exercise  all  such  rights,  powers,  and  duties 
as  are  conferred  upon  it  by  this  act,  and  such  other 
powers,  rights,  and  duties  as  are  now,  or  shall  be  here- 
after conferred  by  the  laws  of  the  State  of  Kansas 
upon  the  mayors  and  councils  of  the  cities  of  the  first 
class,  not  in  conflict  with  the  provisions  of  this  act,"  * 
The  South  Carolina  law  grants  to  the  board  all  legis- 
lative, executive,  and  judicial  powers  and  duties  con- 
ferred upon  the  city.  The  Galveston  charter  provides 
that  "  the  board  of  commissioners  shall  have  and  ex- 
ercise all  the  rights,  powers,  and  duties  of  the  mayor 
and  board  of  aldermen  of  cities,  as  may  be  conferred 
by  the  constitution  and  laws  of  this  state,  and  ...  all 
the  rights,  powers,  and  duties  conferred  upon  them  or 
either  of  them  by  the  terms  of  this  act  " ;  -  and  further 
the  board  "  shall  have  control  and  supervision  over  all 
the  departments  of  said  city."  ^     Not  only  the  author- 

' Section  23.  'Section  6.  'Section  12. 


PROVISIONS 


"3 


ity  formerly  exercised  by  mayor  and  council,  but  addi- 
tional powers  set  forth  in  the  charter  or  state  law 
are  granted  to  the  board  or  commission.  This  addi- 
tional authority  lies  not  in  the  field  of  making  and 
passing  ordinances,  which  is  the  usual  legislative  func- 
tion of  the  council  (and  mayor),  but  in  the  matter 
of  appointments,  and  in  administrative  control. 

The  appointing  power  is  here  used  broadly  to  in- 
clude the  power  ( i )  to  appoint  and  remove  all,  or 
practically  all,  of  the  subordinate  officers  and  em- 
ployees of  the  city;  (2)  the  power  to  create  new 
offices  and  discontinue  them;  and  (3)  the  power  to 
fix  salaries  (except  those  of  the  commissioners  them- 
selves), to  prescribe  duties,  and  to  transfer  officers 
or  change  their  duties. 

Under  nearly  all  of  the  commission  charters,  the 
commission  is  given  the  right  to  appoint  the  city  treas- 
urer, attorney,  assessor  and  collector  of  taxes,  chief 
of  police,  chief  of  the  fire  department,  city  engineer, 
superintendent  of  waterworks,  and  similar  municipal 
officers. 

Galveston's  board  is  given  authority  to  appoint, 
by  majority  vote  of  all  the  members,  all  officers  and 
subordinates,  in  all  departments  of  the  city,  and  to 
remove  any  officer  or  employee  with  or  without  cause. 
The  police  and  fire  commissioner  is  allowed  to  recom- 
mend or  nominate  persons  for  appointment  in  the 
police  and  fire  departments,  while  the  board  as  a 
whole  has  the  power  of  final  selection.  A  similar  pro- 
vision exists  in  the  Fort  Worth  charter.  At  Gal- 
veston the  chief  of  the  police  and  fire  department  is 


114     CI'^Y   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

also  given  power  to  temporarily  suspend  any  subor- 
dinate in  his  department;  while  at  Fort  Worth  the 
police  and  fire  commissioner  is  given  the  right  to  em- 
ploy policemen  and  firemen  and  to  discharge  them  at 
his  discretion,  provided  only  his  action  does  not  con- 
flict with  the  regulations  of  the  board  of  commis- 
sioners. The  power  to  appoint  and  remove  is  gener- 
ally given  to  the  commission,  officers  formerly  elected 
now  being  appointed  by  the  commission.  This  is  true 
of  the  Iowa  law,  of  the  Kansas  law  (both  for  first  and 
second  class  cities),  of  the  laws  of  Wisconsin,  North 
Dakota,  South  Dakota,  South  Carolina,  and  Missis- 
sippi ;  it  is  also  the  case  in  Lewiston,  Idaho,  Bluefield, 
W.  Va.,  Haverhill  and  Gloucester,  Mass.,  and  Berkeley 
and  San  Diego,  Cal.  ^ 

Nomination  by  the  mayor,  subject  to  confirmation 
by  the  rest  of  the  board,  is  the  rule  in  Houston,  Dallas, 
Denison,  Waco,  and  Palestine,  Tex.  In  Memphis, 
each  commissioner  nominates  the  subordinates  in  his 
department,  the  board  electing  them;  a  similar  pro- 
vision, substantially,  exists  in  the  charter  of  Grand 
Junction,  Col.  Removal  is  by  the  mayor  alone  or  by 
the  council  in  Houston  and  Denison;  and  by  the  head 
of  the  department,  with  the  consent  of  the  mayor,  in 
Palestine.  In  Colorado  Springs  each  commissioner 
recommends  officers  in  his  department;  the  mayor  ap- 
points them;  day  laborers  and  unskilled  workmen  in 
each  department  are  employed  and  discharged  by  the 
commissioner  in  charge  of  that  department.  In  Ta- 
coma,  each  chief  of  a  department  appoints  and  removes 
in  his  own  department,  except  the  mayor,  who  appoints 


PROVISIONS 


"5 


in  his  own  department,  subject  to  confirmation  by  the 
council  as  a  whole.  ^ 

The  power  to  create  new  offices,  to  appoint  their 
incumbents  and  to  discontinue  and  abolish  such  offices 
at  will,  are  provisions  which  add  greatly  to  the 
efficiency  of  a  city  government.  They  are  found  in 
nearly  all  the  commission  plans,  as  are  also  provisions 
granting  power  to  the  board  to  fix  the  salaries,  pre- 
scribe and  alter  the  duties  and  assign  further  duties, 
which  are  also  present  in  a  great  number  of  charters. 
These  enable  the  board  to  shift  their  officers  and  sub- 
ordinates into  more  suitable  places  and  to  transfer 
duties,  when  necessary,  thus  insuring  a  considerable 
degree  of  elasticity. 

Not  only  large  appointing  power  but  administra- 
tive oversight  of  a  comprehensive  and  far-reaching 
character  is  given  by  specific  provision  of  the  charter 
or  state  law,  in  most  cases,  to  the  commission  or  coun- 
cil; at  the  same  time,  in  practically  all  instances  the 
individual  commissioners  are  heads  of  departments. 
The  board  of  commissioners,  provide  the  Galveston 
and  Fort  Worth  charters,  "  shall  have  control  and 
supervision  over  all  the  departments  of  said  city,  and 
to  that  end  shall  have  power  to  make  and  enforce 

^  In  Texas  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  let  the  treasurership  by- 
contract  to  the  highest  bidder,  the  city  treasurer  being  at  the  same 
time  the  city  depository.  The  new  charters  of  Austin,  Amarillo, 
Corpus  Christi,  Dallas,  and  Palestine  all  contain  such  a  provision. 
The  contract  goes  to  the  bank  which  offers  the  largest  interest  on 
city  deposits.  Dallas  and  Austin  pay  a  nominal  salary  of  $5.00  per 
year.  In  Dallas,  the  city  auditor  is  nominated  by  the  bank  presi- 
dents of  the  city. 


ii6     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

such  rules  and  regulations  as  they  may  see  fit  and 
proper  for  .  .  .  the  organization,  management,  and 
operation  of  all  the  departments  of  said  city,  and  what- 
ever agencies  may  be  created  for  the  administration 
of  its  affairs."  Moreover,  "  they  shall,  by  majority 
vote  of  all  said  commissioners,  designate  from  among 
their  members  one  commissioner  who  shall  be  known 
as  *  police  and  fire  commissioner '  ";  and  one  commis- 
sioner to  be  head  of  each  of  the  other  departments. 

"  Said  commissioners,"  says  the  Dallas  charter, 
"  shall  perform  all  of  the  executive  duties  of  the  re- 
spective departments  to  which  they  may  be  assigned, 
as  above  provided,  but  said  board,  as  a  whole,  shall 
have  supervision  of,  and  be  respQnsible  for,  the  adminis- 
tration of  each  of  said  departments."  Substantially  the 
same  provision  occurs  in  the  charter  of  Austin,  Tex. 

All  appointive  officers  can  be  removed  for  cause, 
and  in  most  cities  without  specific  cause,  whenever  the 
city's  interest  may  be  benefited  by  their  removal.  The 
general  laws  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  North  and 
South  Dakota,  Mississippi,  South  Carolina  and  Wis- 
consin, and  the  charters  of  Amarillo,  Austin,  Berkeley, 
Bluefield,  Boise  City,  Charleston,  Chelsea,  Colorado 
Springs,  Corpus  Christi,  Dallas,  Denison,  Enid,  Fort 
Worth,  Galveston,  Gloucester,  Grand  Junction,  Hav- 
erhill, Lewiston,  Marshall,  Palestine.  San  Diego,  Ta- 
coma,  and  Tulsa,  provide  for  removal  of  all  appointive 
officers  by  the  council  either  by  a  three-fourths  or 
simple  majority  vote,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
officers  in  a  few  of  these  cities.  Tulsa  excepts  the  city 
attorney  and  corporation  judge;   Lewiston,   the  con- 


PROVISIONS 


,117 


troller;  Amarillo,  the  city  attorney,  city  secretary,  and 
corporation  judge;  and  Dallas,  the  auditor,  city  attor- 
ney, and  corporation  judge.  Some  of  these  cities  also 
give  the  removal  power  to  the  mayor  or  heads  of  de- 
partments in  certain  instances.  Boise  City  also  gives  it 
to  the  mayor.  Palestine  gives  the  power  of  removal  to 
the  appointing  officer  with  the  permission  of  the  mayor, 
in  addition  to  the  power  possessed  by  the  council.  Enid 
gives  the  commissioners  this  power  irrespective  of  the 
approval  of  the  mayor.  In  some  cities  a  specific  cause 
must  be  assigned,  and  the  officers  sought  to  be  removed 
given  notice  and  a  chance  to  be  heard  before  a  removal 
is  made.  But  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cities  pro- 
vide for  removal  without  cause,  when  the  proper  of- 
ficials believe  the  city's  interests  will  be  benefited  by 
such  action.  Boise  City  provides  that  no  removal  shall 
be  made  on  account  of  political  or  religious  beliefs. 
Most  cities  provide  that  the  officer  or  body  making  the 
removal  shall  give  the  reasons  for  such  removal  in 
writing,  when  so  requested  by  the  one  removed,  and 
that  the  reasons  given  shall  be  spread  upon  the  records 
of  the  city.  Greenville  and  Houston  give  the  power 
of  removal  exclusively  to  the  mayor  with  the  exception 
that  in  Houston  the  council  may  by  a  four-fifths  vote 
remove  the  mayor.  El  Paso  gives  to  the  mayor  power 
to  remove  his  own  appointees,  and  to  the  council  power 
to  remove  its  appointees.  Memphis  makes  no  provi- 
sion for  removal  except  by  impeachment.  Day  labor- 
ers are  usually  discharged  by  the  one  hiring  them.^ 

*  See  University  of  Wisconsin  Bulletin. 


Ii8     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

The  power  of  the  board  or  the  mayor  to  assign 
the  departments  tends  to  make  the  commission  still 
more  of  a  unit  in  its  responsibility  to  the  voters,  en- 
abling it  to  control  any  individual  member. 

In  connection  with  its  other  duties  the  commission 
is  given  authority  to  levy  taxes,  to  vote  appropriations 
and,  in  general,  a  broad  control  of  the  finances  of  the 
municipality.  Making  up  the  annual  budget  of  ex- 
penditures is  thus  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  commis- 
sion. Each  commissioner  is  required  to  submit  usu- 
ally to  the  mayor  thirty  or  sixty  days  before  the  time 
of  making  up  the  budget,  estimates  of  the  amounts 
which  will  be  needed  during  the  ensuing  year  to  prop- 
erly run  his  department,  and  tl>e  revenues  which  his 
department  can  probably  be  counted  on  to  yield.  The 
mayor  submits  all  the  estimates  so  made  to  the  board 
as  a  whole,  which  determines  the  amount  of  expendi- 
tures, the  tax  rate,  and  the  allotment  to  each  depart- 
ment. Extravagance  of  expenditure  is  prevented  by 
the  provision  found  in  many  charters  that  the  total 
amount  appropriated  by  the  budget  shall  not  exceed 
the  estimated  income.  Another  clause  frequently  in- 
cluded provides  that  after  the  appropriations  are  once 
fixed  they  cannot  be  increased,  unless  the  income  esti- 
mated has  been  exceeded  by  actual  receipt.  Some- 
times, as  in  the  Memphis  charter,  the  board  is  allowed 
to  spend  more  in  one  department  than  at  first  estimated 
if  the  amount  be  taken  from  other  departments,  the 
total  expenditure  not  exceeding  that  at  first  agreed 
upon. 

In  Colorado  Springs,  Lewiston,  Idaho,  and  in  sev- 


PROVISIONS 


119 


eral  other  cities  the  mayor  may  veto  separate  items 
in  appropriation  measures.  In  the  charters  of  Amar- 
illo,  Ardmore,  Boise  City,  Colorado  Springs,  Corpus 
Christi,  Denison,  Enid,  El  Paso,  Greenville,  Houston, 
Lewiston  and  Tulsa  the  mayor  is  given  the  veto 
power,  but  in  other.cities  he  is  not,  but  has  a  vote,  the 
same  as  other  members  of  the  board  of  commissioners. 
In  Ardmore,  Boise  City,  Enid,  and  Lewiston  he  is 
given  no  vote  except  in  case  of  a  tie,  and,  in  Lewiston, 
in  the  case  of  appointments.  Tulsa  denies  the  mayor 
a  deciding  vote  in  the  confirmation  of  his  appointments. 
In  Amarillo,  Corpus  Christi,  Denison,  El  Paso,  Green- 
ville, and  Houston  the  mayor  has  both  a  vote  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  board  of  commissioners  and  the  veto  power. 
Amarillo  and  Huntington  provide  that  every  member 
of  the  board  of  commissioners  present  must  vote  on  all 
.propositions  coming  before  it,  and  must  have  his  vote 
recorded.  In  the  Kansas  law  for  cities  of  the  second 
class,  the  city  attorney  casts  the  deciding  vote  in  case 
of  a  tie.  In  other  cities  the  additional  powers  of  the 
mayor  are  merely  those  of  a  presiding  officer.  Care 
in  auditing  the  acts  of  the  departments  is  provided  for 
in  some  charters ;  while  others  require  an  annual  exam- 
ination of  the  city's  accounts  and  authorize  the  mayor 
to  appoint  experts  to  examine  them.  The  board  of 
commissioners  frequently  acts  as  a  board  to  equalize 
the  assessment  of  taxes ;  and  sometimes  sits  as  a  civil- 
service  commission. 

The  powers  of  the  commission,  therefore,  are  much 
greater  than  those  of  the  usual  city  council,  including, 

as  they  do,  close  administrative  oversight  as  well  as 
9 


120     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

legislative  authority,  the  appointment  of  subordinate 
executive  officers,  and  the  exercise  of  such  financial 
and  incidental  powers  as  are  necessary.  Yet  such  con- 
centration of  control  has  proved  most  successful  in 
the  field  of  business,  where  similar  problems  of  or- 
ganization have  to  be  met  and  efficient  collective  ac- 
tion taken  in  behalf  of  a  large  group  of  interested 
members  of  the  corporation. 

A  fourth  characteristic  present  in  all  commission 
types  examined  is  the  assignment  of  each  commis- 
sioner to  be  the  head  of  a  definite  department,  for  the 
conduct  of  which  he  is  responsible  to  the  commission, 
and  to  some  extent  directly  to  the  people. 

"  The  working  of  the  municipality  shall  be  divided 
into  departments,  with  one  of  the  commissioners  at 
the  head  of  each  department,"  is  the  simple  wording 
of  the  Mississippi  law.  These  two  features  seem  to 
go  together — the  collective  responsibility  of  the  board 
for  the  efficient  administration  of  city  affairs,  and  the 
individual  responsibility  of  the  separate  members  as 
heads  of  the  administrative  departments.  The  charter 
of  Fort  Worth,  after  the  same  general  provisions  as 
those  of  Galveston,  adds  the  words,  "  it  being  the  pur- 
pose of  this  act  to  charge  each  commissioner  in  control 
of  a  department  with  its  management,  and  to  fix  di- 
rectly upon  him  the  responsibility  for  its  proper 
conduct."  ^ 

In  general,  the  commissioners  exercise  approx- 
imately   equal    authority,    each    in    his    separate    of- 


*  Chapter  II,  Section  i6. 


PROVISIONS 


121 


fice,  except  the  mayor,  who  will  receive  special  men- 
tion. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  commissioners  do  not 
look  after  the  details  of  the  work  of  the  departments; 
they  have  superintendents  who  do  all  this.  The  com- 
missioner of  water,  lighting  and  sewerage  has  a  super- 
intendent of  waterworks,  a  superintendent  of  light- 
ing, an  electrical  inspector,  and  an  inspector  of 
plumbing,  under  his  direction.  The  commissioner 
of  streets  and  public  improvements  has  a  foreman 
in  charge  of  paving,  cleaning,  sidewalk  construction, 
grading — differing  in  number  and  duties  with  the 
size  of  the  city  and  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done. 
The  office  of  commissioner  of  finance  usually  includes 
the  assessor  and  collector  of  taxes,  and  the  auditor, 
with  their  necessary  assistants  and  clerks.  The  com- 
missioners have  only  the  larger  aspects  of  the  city's 
work  to  deal  with.  They  are  managers,  and  together 
constitute  a  managing  board. 

The  mayor  is  a  member  of  the  board,  and  presides 
at  its  meetings,  with  the  right  to  vote  on  all  questions. 
He  signs  ordinances,  contracts,  and  warrants  on  the 
treasury,  and  performs  other  ministerial  acts.  He  also 
usually  possesses  certain  emergency  powers,  such  as 
the  right  to  summon  special  policemen  in  times  of  riot 
or  epidemic.  He  presents  the  budget  to  the  council. 
He  calls  special  meetings  of  the  board.  The  mayor 
is  the  chief  executive  officer  of  the  city,  in  which  ca- 
pacity he  frequently,  as  in  the  case  of  Des  Moines, 
is  made  the  head  of  the  department  of  public  affairs, 
having  oversight  of  municipal  matters  as  a  whole,  and 


122     CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

having  under  his  control  the  corporation  counsel  (city 
attorney),  city  clerk  or  secretary,  and  sometimes  one 
or  two  additional  officers. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  the  mayor's  office,  in 
the  commission  plan,  is  that  he  is  one  of  the  council, 
voting,  but  having  lost  the  veto  power  so  usual  under 
the  aldermanic  form  of  government.  Most  commis- 
sion charters  so  provide,  but  there  are  exceptions.  He 
has  both  vote  and  veto  in  Houston,  Dallas,  Denison, 
Greenville,  Corpus  Christi,  and  Amarillo,  Tex,,  and  in 
Lewiston,  Idaho.  In  most  of  these  cities  he  occupies 
the  unusual  position  of  being  able  to  veto  an  ordinance 
passed  by  the  board,  and  then  as  a  member  of  the 
board  vote  not  to  overrule  his  owp  veto.  As  it  usually 
requires  a  four-fifths  or  a  two-thirds  vote  to  override 
a  veto,  the  mayor  and  one  commissioner  can  control. 
In  High  Point,  N.  C,  the  mayor  has  only  a  veto.  In 
Colorado  Springs  he  votes  but  has  a  veto  also  on  ap- 
propriation items.  In  El  Paso  he  has  a  veto  and  a 
vote  in  case  of  a  tie  on  the  board.  Usually,  however, 
the  veto  power  has  been  transferred  to  the  voters  as  a 
whole,  by  means  of  the  referendum.  In  Huntington, 
W.  Va.,  a  citizen  board  of  sixty-four  members  is  given 
the  right  of  veto  on  ordinances;  as  is  also  the  case  in 
Bluefield. 

In  Galveston  the  name  of  mayor  appears  as  mayor- 
president,  but  has  elsewhere  been  generally  retained 
without  change.  In  Marshall,  Tex.,  he  is  known  as 
the  chairman  of  the  board;  in  North  Dakota,  as  the 
president  of  the  board.  In  Grand  Junction,  one  of 
the  commissioners  is  designated  commissioner  of  pub- 


PROVISIONS 


123 


lie  affairs,  and  is  ex-officio  mayor.  In  Colorado 
Springs  the  mayor  is  commissioner  of  water  and  water- 
works; in  Memphis,  of  public  affairs  and  health;  in 
Tacoma,  public  affairs,  health,  and  sanitation. 

Broadly  considered,  the  mayor,  under  the  commis- 
sion form  of  government,  is  merged  in  the  board, 
whether  the  latter  be  called  council  or  commission; 
the  mayor's  veto  generally  disappears;  as  one  of  the 
governing  board  he  has  equal  voting  power ;  by  virtue 
of  his  emergency  authority  and  his  general  oversight 
of  public  affairs,  his  position  is  somewhat  more  in- 
fluential than  that  of  the  other  commissions.  But  he 
acts  as  a  part  of  the  ordinance-making  body,  and  the 
other  members  share  his  former  administrative  con- 
trol ;  and  both  together  exercise  the  appointing  power. 
The  combination  of  these  three  functions,  together 
with  the  necessary  control  of  finances,  is  emphasized 
from  whatever  side  the  commission  system  is  ap- 
proached. 

There  are  several  advantages  w^hich  result  from 
concentrating  power  so  completely  in  the  hands  of  a 
single  small  group.  First,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  voter  and  the  citizen  it  -focuses  attention  on  the 
offices,  because  more  important,  and,  aside  from  the 
fewness  of  the  number  to  be  filled,  compels  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  candidates.  Further,  after  election,  the 
public  can  remember  who  the  commissioners  are;  the 
simple  division  of  duties  is  an  arrangement  that  the 
citizen  with  a  complaint  or  an  inquiry  to  make  finds 
most  useful.  He  not  only  knows  who  is  in  charge  of 
a  department,  but  who  is  to  blame  if  bad  conditions 


124     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

are  not  remedied.  In  this  way,  not  only  is  the  commis- 
sioner held  accountable  to  the  board,  but  public  opinion 
may  reach  down  through  the  board  and  know  who 
is  careless  among  the  commissioners.  Usually,  how- 
ever, the  board  can  be  relied  upon  to  bring  an  unsatis- 
factory member  to  time  by  failure  to  approve  his  plans 
or  confirm  his  recommendations  for  appointments.  If 
not,  there  is  the  recall;  which  will  be  considered  later. 
The  board  itself,  moreover,  can  do  better  work 
when  clothed  with  sufficient  authority.  Nothing 
blights  the  hopes  of  a  city  boss  so  effectively  as  giving 
the  governing  board  power  enough  to  run  the  city's 
affairs  without  his  help.  For,  indeed,  why  does  the 
boss  exist?  With  municipal  authority  divided  among 
mayor,  councilmen,  and  elective  chief  of  police,  as- 
sessor, attorney,  engineer,  and  other  officers  the  boss 
gathers  up  the  loose  ends  of  power  and  wields  them  for 
his  own  benefit.  To  some  degree,  he  unifies  the  city 
government,  often  determining  upon  a  policy  for  the 
municipality  and  carrying  it  through  by  means  of  his 
control  of  all  the  divisions  of  official  authority.  He 
may  thus  perform  a  real  service  in  supplying  missing 
cogs  in  the  machinery,  and  make  otherwise  discon- 
nected wheels  and  springs  work  together  in  a  single 
compact  municipal  mechanism.  But  it  is  likely  to  be 
also  a  political  machine,  operated  for  private  benefit. 
If  the  boss  actually  renders  a  useful  service  to  the 
city,  he  exacts  an  exorbitant  compensation  in  the  way 
of  rake-offs  or  graft.  The  remedy  is  not  to  rail  at 
the  boss,  but  to  secure  a  new  piece  of  governmental 
machinery,  which  shall  be,  to  begin  with,  a  unit  in 


PROVISIONS 


125 


itself  needing  no  "  expert  "  boss  to  thrust  in  needed 
cogs  here  and  there  to  make  the  wheels  work.  The 
machinery  should  be  provided  with  direct  and  effect- 
ive starting  and  regulating  levers,  so  that  control  rnay 
be  easy  and  sure.  The  controlling  levers,  in  the  city's 
governmental  apparatus,  under  the  commission  form, 
are  the  referendum,  the  recall,  the  initiative,  and  simi- 
lar improved  appliances  which  are  being  included  in 
most  of  the  recently  constructed  municipal  machinery. 
If  the  referendum  is  a  brake,  the  initiative  is  a  starting 
lever,  and  the  recall  a  device  to  throw  a  defective  belt 
off  the  pulley,  in  order  to  replace  it  with  another. 

Not  only  is  it  important  that  sufficient  power 
should  be  possessed  by  the  governing  body  to  enable 
it  to  perform  its  duties  well,  but  methods  of  control 
must  also  be  provided  to  insure  control  by  the  people ; 
otherwise,  despotic  and  arbitrary  acts  of  officials  have 
no  remedy. 

The  "  checks  "  provided  in  the  commission  char- 
ters include:  (a)  publicity,  both  of  proceedings,  of 
ordinances,  of  franchises  and  of  the  general  and  finan- 
cial condition  of  the  city;  (b)  the  referendum;  (c) 
the  initiative;  (d)  the  recall;  (e)  nonpartisan  primary 
and  election  methods;  (/)  a  civil-service  commission; 
and  other  and  minor  provisions. 

Of  these  "  checks  "  and  safeguards,  some  appear 
in  nearly  every  charter,  w^hile  others  occur  less  fre- 
quently. The  following  tables  summarize  the  prin- 
cipal means  of  popular  control  provided  in  the  dif- 
ferent charters  and  general  laws.  The  degree  of 
publicity,  the  extent  to  which  the  referendum  is  appli- 


126     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


cable,  the  percentage  of  signatures  required  for  the 
recall — indeed,  nearly  every  item  differs  in  some  re- 
spect from  the  corresponding  provision  of  other  char- 
ters, but  the  definite  presence  of  the  principle  involved 
is  sufficient  to  place  it  here  in  the  columns  "  publicity," 
"  referendum,"  or  wherever  it  may  belong.  The  de- 
tails of  the  provisions  of  each  charter  cannot  here  be 
presented,  for  lack  of  space;  these  tables  are  intended 
as  a  broad  resume  of  all  the  charters : 

Summary  of  "Checks"  Provided   in  Commission  Charters 
AND  Laws 


State  Laws. 

'M 

.a 

«2 

1  , 

oi 

X 
X 
X 

X 

2 

X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

1 

s 

(-1 

1 

is 

c  C 

OpL, 

"1 

0 

Iowa 

X 

X' 
X 

X 

i 

X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 

2 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

2 
X 

X 
X 
X 

X 

X 

I 

X 

2 

X 
X 

X 

X 

Kansas:  Cities  of  the  ist  class 
Kansas:  Cities  of  the  2d  class 
Wisconsin 

X 

Minnesota 

Illinois 

North  Dakota 

1 

South  Dakota 

_ 

Texas.     (General  Law)* .... 
New  Mexico 

— 

South  Carolina 

X 

Kentucky 

Mississippi 

_ 

Louisiana 

— 

'  Nonpartisan  primaries  allowed  only  in  cities  of    over    10,000 
population. 

*  Any  city  adopting  the  commission  plan  may  include  this  feature. 

*  Civil  service  of  1895  ro^-y  b^  adopted  by  any  city. 

*  Applies  to  cities  of  less  than  10,000  population. 


PROVISIONS 


127 


SUBIMARY    OF    "ChECKS"    PROVmED    IN    COMMISSION    CHARTERS 

AND  hAViS— Concluded 


City  Charters. 


Galveston,  Texas 

Houston,  Texas 

Dallas,  Texas 

Fort  Worth,  Texas 

El  Paso,  Texas 

Denison,  Texas 

Austin,  Texas 

Greenville,  Texas 

Waco,  Texas 

Palestine,  Texas 

Corpus  Christi,  Texas 

Marshall,  Texas 

Amarillo,  Texas 

Lewiston,  Idaho 

Hvmtington,  West  Virginia. . 
Bluefield,  West  Virginia .  .  . . 

Memphis,  Tennessee 

High  Point,  North  Carolina . 
Haverhill,  Massachusetts  .  . 
Gloucester,  Massachusetts.  . 

Lynn,  Massachusetts 

Colorado  Springs,  Colorado. 
Grand  Junction,  Colorado .  . 

Berkeley,  California 

San  Diego,  California 

Oakland,  California 

Tacema,  Washington 

McAlester,  Oklahoma 

Sapulpa,  Oklahoma 

Ardmore,  Oklahoma 

Enid,  Oklahoma 

Tulsa,  Oklahoma 

Bartlesville,  Oklahoma 

Muskogee,  Oklahoma.  .  .-. . . 


X 
X 
X 

•  X 
X 
X 
X 


b 


Notes  to  table  of  City  Charters  will  be  found  on  page  128. 


128     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

1  Mayor  and  council  have  power  to  provide  for  selection  of  agents, 
officers  and  employees  of  the  city  under  civil-service  rules. 

'  Board  of  commissioners  acts  as.  civil-service  board. 

'  A  citizen's  board  exercises  both  referendum  and  recall. 

*  May  have  either  partisan  or  nonpartisan  primaries,  in  accord- 
ance with  state  constitution. 

Which  of  these  "  checks  "  is  most  important  and 
therefore  most  necessary  of  inckision  in  a  city  charter 
is  a  question  difficult  to  answer,  because  there  is  no 
means  of  determining  the  value  of  each  safeguard 
separately  with  any  degree  of  exactness.  Publicity 
features  are  certainly  indispensable,  for  the  public 
must  know  what  ordinances  are  passed  and  what  is 
the  condition  of  the  city  in  its  many  departments,  in 
order  to  intelligently  use  any  of  the  other  safety 
devices.  The  referendum  and  initiative  naturally  go 
together;  and  while  the  former  is  likely  to  be  more 
frequently  employed,  the  experience  of  Oregon  shows 
that,  in  state  affairs  at  least,  the  latter  will  not  be  un- 
used. The  two  together  constitute  a  unit,  supplying 
a  continuous  control  of  legislation.  The  recall  is  of 
no  less  value  for  its  continuous  control  of  legislators 
— in  a  municipality,  the  city  commissioners.  Non- 
partisan primary  and  election  features  seem  to  be 
clearly  helpful,  and  there  is  a  present  demand  for  a 
municipal  civil  service  in  connection  with  the  other 
provisions.  While  it  is  possible  that  the  relative  im- 
portance of  these  controlling  levers,  all  of  which  are 
in  the  nature  of  improvements,  is  about  the  order 
given,  one  will  scarcely  venture  a  dogmatic  conclusion 
until  after  a  longer  period  of  trial  has  supplied  more 
data. 


PROVISIONS 


129 


The  broader  question  as  to  what  element  of  the 
five  noted  as  fundamental  parts  of  the  commission 
form  is  most  essential  and  the  cause  of  the  great  im- 
provement in  governmental  efficiency,  is  of  much 
greater  import.  It  is  even  more  difficult  to  answer. 
Is  it  more  important  to  give  the  governing  body  ade- 
quate power  or  to  hold  it  strictly  accountable  to  the 
will  of  the  people?  How  can  these  two  elements  be 
separated?  Are  they  not  the  two  sides  of  the  shield? 
Should  not  power  and  responsibility  go  together? 
The  great  fault  of  the  aldermanic  system  is  that  not 
only  are  there  not  provided  adequate  means  for  hold- 
ing councilmen  responsible  to  their  constituents,  but 
there  is  not  enough  power  granted  to  the  council  to 
enable  it  to  direct  the  city's  activities  rightly.  These 
two  principles,  inseparably  connected,  and  each  given 
its  proper  weight,  lie  at  the  bottom  of  all  well-con- 
ducted collective  enterprises,  corporate  or  govern- 
mental.^ 

^  Dr.  Bradford,  whose  investigations  have  been  presented  to  the 
National  Municipal  League,  and  which  constitute  the  basis  of  this 
chapter,  will  shortly  publish  a  volume  giving  his  observations  and 
conclusions  in  greater  detail. 


CHAPTER   VII 

POPULAR   ARGUMENTS  FOR   COMMISSION   GOVERNMENT 

It  is  at  once  interesting  and  instructive  to  the  stu- 
dent of  city  government  by  commission  to  examine 
the  arguments  advanced  for  the  system  by  its  advo- 
cates. These  are  made  up  of  students  and  admin- 
istrators :  of  those  who  Hve  in  commission-governed 
cities  and  those  who  want  the  plan  adopted  in  their 
own  communities.  We  find  lawyers,  manufacturers, 
business  men  generally,  newspaper  men,  civic  workers, 
municipal  officials,  and  investigators  uniting  in  ad- 
vancing reasons  for  the  extension  of  the  system.  Thus 
we  find  the  Joint  Committee  of  the  Commercial  Club 
and  the  Common  Council,  of  Duluth,  Minn.,  issuing 
the  following  statement  of  their  reasons  for  fa\oring 
commission  government : 

1.  Because  it  establishes  the  city  on  a  business 
basis  and  under  it  the  city  is  operated  as  any  large 
commercial  corporation  would  be,  thus  eliminating 
political  interests  of  all  kinds. 

2.  Because  it  centralizes  responsibility  so  it  cannot 
be  evaded. 

3.  Because  it  facilitates  and  expedites  the  trans- 
action of  business  and  the  making  of  public  im- 
provements. 

130 


POPULAR    ARGUMENTS    FOR 


131 


4.  Because  it  naturally  follows  that  greater  econ- 
omy will  result  from  such  a  purely  business  adminis- 
tration. 

5.  Because  it  provides,  or  should  provide,  that  the 
commissioners  shall  give  all  their  time  to  the  city's 
business,  and  that  they  shall  be  paid  salaries  sufficient 
to  attract  the  right  kind  of  men. 

6.  Because  the  provisions  of  the  referendum,  in- 
itiative, and  recall  give  the  citizens  greater  responsi- 
bilities, greater  interest  in  public  affairs  and  greater 
incentive  to  participate  in  them. 

7.  Because  it  abolishes  the  ward  system  by  elect- 
ing city  officers  from  the  whole  city,  makes  them  re- 
sponsible to  all  parts  of  the  city,  and  compels  them 
to  take  care  of  the  needs  of  all  parts  of  the  community. 

The  Kansas  City  Star  has  been  the  leading  propo- 
nent of  commission  government  in  the  Central  West 
beyond  the  Mississippi.  It  has  editorially  set  forth 
the  merits  of  the  system  and  has  sent  its  editors  out, 
in  response  to  urgent  calls,  to  declare  by  word  of 
mouth  what  may  be  expected.  It  has  condensed  its 
argument  into  a  leaflet  which  has  been  widely  circu- 
lated. It  is  quoted  from  in  this  connection  to  show 
the  arguments  which  have  prevailed  in  that  section 
of  the  country  where  commission  government  has  had 
the  greatest  vogue.  Also  to  show  the  successful  and 
public-spirited  newspaper's  point  of  view.^ 

Here  are  the  more  important  points  in  favor  of 

*  The  pamphlet,  which  is  here  reproduced  only  in  part,  may  be 
had  upon  application  to  Col.  Wm.  R.  Nelson,  the  proprietor  of  the 
Kansas  City  Star. 


132 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


the  system  contrasted  with  old  plans  in  vogue  in  most 
American  cities : 

Commission  government  is  the  application  of  mod- 
ern business  methods  to  the  conduct  of  municipal 
affairs.  It  concentrates  responsibility  in  the  city  gov- 
ernment and  exacts  accountability  from  those  elected 
to  administer  the  public  business,  thereby  making 
efficiency  the  principal  requirement  in  civic  rule: 

It  abolishes  the  old  ward  representation  plan  which 
provides  for  a  mayor  and  one  or  two  aldermen  from 
each  ward,  and  substitute  therefor  a  mayor  and  four 
commissioners  elected  by  all  the  people. 

Under  the  old  rule  the  mayor  and  councilmen  are 
elected  as  representatives  of  a  political  party,  or  as 
the  "  citizens'  "  or  "  business  men's  "  candidates,  or 
as-  representing  some  particular  faction  among  the 
citizens. 

Commission  government  establishes  a  standard  in 
municipal  affairs.  It  requires  the  commissioners  to 
do  certain  things  or  forfeit  their  office. 

Ward  government  requires  nothing  in  particular, 
establishes  no  order  of  procedure,  and  exacts  no  ac- 
countability for  failure  to  do  what  the  people  demand. 

Commission  government  requires  that  one  commis- 
sioner shall  be  responsible  for  enforcing  the  laws  and 
maintaining  an  efficient  fire  department;  ^  of  another 
commissioner  that  he  keep  the  streets  clean  and  in 
good  repair;  of  another  that  he  collect  the  taxes  and 
supervise  the  revenues,  etc.     If  there  is  failure  in  any 

'  While  the  specific  references  in  the  Star's  leaflet  are  to  the  Kan- 
sas law,  their  import  is  of  general  significance. 


POPULAR  ARGUMENTS   FOR  133 

department  the  commissioner  responsible  for  that  de- 
partment cannot  say  that  it  was  occasioned  because 
the  other  commissioners  were  negligent  in  their  depart- 
ments, or  that  he  was  forced  to  employ  incompetent 
assistants.  Neither  can  he  offer  any  of  the  excuses 
so  common  under  the  old  regime.  That  department 
is  under  his  exclusive  management;  the  authority  to 
employ  competent  help  or  to  discharge  incompetent 
help  is  his.  If  there  is  failure  the  failure  is  his.  and 
every  citizen  of  the  municipality  knows  where  to  place 
the  blame. 

Ward  government  provides  that  "  the  mayor  and 
council  "  shall  perform  the  general  services  mentioned 
in  the  statutes.  Nowhere  is  there  provision  for  indi- 
vidual obligation.  The  enforcement  of  law  rests  with 
"  the  mayor  and  council  " ;  the  streets  are  in  charge 
of  "  the  mayor  and  council  " ;  the  collection  of  taxes 
and  the  supervision  of  revenues  is  intrusted  to  "  the 
mayor  and  council."  The  best  and  most  capable  man 
in  the  council  can  render  no  greater  service  to  the  city 
than  the  most  incompetent,  because  there  is  no  pro- 
vision made  for  the  capable  man  to  do  more  than  the 
most  incompetent  will  permit  him  to  do.  And  where 
there  is  failure,  no  citizen  of  the  municipality  is  able  to 
place  the  blame  anywhere  except  upon  "  the  mayor  and 
council." 

The  commission  plan  provides  a  government  at 
work  every  day  in  the  year.  If  an  emergency  arises 
the  municipality  can  meet  it;  if  there  is  a  complaint 
on  the  part  of  a  citizen  anywhere  it  can  be  answered 
and  corrected  the  same  day;  if  there  is  a  street  to  re- 


134 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


pair,  a  defective  catch  basin  that  overflows,  a  sidewalk 
to  mend,  a  telephone  call  to  the  city  hall  is  all  that  is 
necessary  to  bring  the  workmen  at  once  to  remedy  the 
complaint. 

Under  the  old  ward  plan  the  council  meets  perhaps 
once  each  week — at  night.  The  municipal  govern- 
ment is  actually  at  work  two  or  three  hours  every 
seven  days.  If  a  citizen  has  a  complaint  he  must  visit 
the  council  at  night;  his  complaint  is  referred  to  a 
committee;  the  committee  meets  in  another  week  and 
refers  the  complaint  to  the  superintendent  of  streets, 
who  refers  it  to  a  foreman,  who  takes  his  time  to 
investigate  the  trouble  and  refers  it  back  to  the  street 
superintendent.  The  superintendent  refers  it  back  to 
the  council  committee  and  the  council  committee  refers 
it  back  to  the  council,  where  it  goes  over  under  the 
head  of  unfinished  business  for  another  meeting. 

The  contrasts  afforded  in  the  foregoing  provisions 
of  the  ward  representation  plan  and  the  commission 
form  of  government  fairly  illustrate  the  distinction 
between  the  old  rule  and  the  new,  and  clearly  illus- 
trate the  advantages  of  commission  rule  over  the 
present  system  of  ward  government. 

Commission  government  does  not  increase  power 
— it  increases  responsibility.  The  commissioners  are, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  prevented  from  the  exercise  of 
such  harmful  powers  as  granting  important  fran- 
chises, bartering  public  privileges  that  belong  to  the 
people,  or  filling  the  public  seryice  with  political 
friends  to  pay  political  debts  at  public  expense,  by  the 
ample   safeguards   of   the  referendum  and  the   civil 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   FOR  135 

service.  The  power  of  a  dishonest  official  to  remain 
in  office  or  one  who  uses  his  position  in  any  way  to 
oppose  the  best  interests  of  the  municipahty  is  also 
taken  away  by  the  wise  provision  of  the  recall.  The 
power  of  the  commissioners  to  defy  public  sentiment 
by  refusing  to  enact  ordinances,  such  as  the  people 
demand,  is  entirely  eliminated  by  the  initiative. 

Yet  the  legal  power  and  authority  to  do  all  these 
things  are  not  only  vested  in  the  mayor  and  council 
under  the  old  ward  plan,  but  they  are  exercised  to  the 
detriment  of  good  government  and  at  the  taxpayer's 
cost. 

Commission  government  restores  to  the  people  the 
right  to  vote  upon  all  public  grants,  to  recall  incom- 
petent or  dishonest  officials,  and  to  pass,  by  popular 
vote,  any  ordinance  desired  by  the  public,  and  while 
it  gives  this  additional  power  it  does  not  take  from 
the  people  a  single  privilege  which  they  have  under 
the  old  ward  plan. 

The  concentration  of  responsibility  should  not  be 
confused  as  meaning  increase  of  power.  Commission 
government  simply  reenacts  the  old  statutes  govern- 
ing municipalities  and  designates  the  individual  re- 
sponsibility for  executing  them.  It  provides  real 
representative  government.  Every  citizen  is  repre- 
sented by  every  member  of  the  commission.  He  has 
a  vote  in  their  nomination  and  their  election.  Under 
the  ward  plan  every  citizen  votes  for  the  mayor  and 
the  members  of  the  council  from  his  ward.  In  Kan- 
sas, for  instance,  there  may  be  two  councilmen  from 
each  ward,  and,  in  some  of  the  cities,  six  wards.  That 
10 


136     CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

means  twelve  councilmen.  Every  voter  casts  a  ballot 
for  one  twelfth  of  the  total  membership  once  each 
year,  and  never  has  a  voice  or  vote  in  the  nomination 
or  election  of  but  two  of  them.  What  about  the  other 
ten?  They  legislate  for  the  entire  city;  appropriate 
funds  for  the  entire  city;  levy  taxes  upon  every  citi- 
zen. But  the  citizen  does  not  have  the  opportunity 
to  vote  even  for  a  majority  of  them.  Whatever  the 
intent  might  have  been  in  the  division  of  cities  into 
wards,  it  certainly  resulted  in  an  effectual  bar  to  rep- 
resentative government  for  the  people. 

Commission  government  remedies  that  evil  influ- 
ence in  municipal  rule.  It  obliterates  ward  lines  en- 
tirely and  makes  the  commissioners  the  representatives 
of  the  whole  city.  Every  voter  has  an  equal  part  in 
selecting  them  and  an  equal  claim  upon  their  services. 
His  influence,  so  far  as  the  vital  feature  of  the  ballot 
is  concerned,  is  just  six  times  more  powerful  in  munic- 
ipal elections  than  it  is  where  twelve  councilmen  are 
elected  under  the  ward  plan. 

It  must  be  apparent  that  a  scheme  of  civic  rule 
which  enlarges  the  exercise  of  franchise  for  every 
citizen  cannot  be  characterized  as  a  departure  from 
the  spirit  or  the  letter  of  representative  government. 

The  objection  of  increased  cost  in  commission 
government  prompts  the  inquiry  as  to  what  the  people 
of  any  municipality  can  afford  to  pay  for  good  gov- 
ernment. The  old  ward  plan  with  its  reckless  waste 
of  funds,  its  neglect  of  public  business,  its  irrespon- 
sible, haphazard  system,  which  proverbially  spends 
money   for  the  wrong  thing  and  leaves  nothing  to 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS    FOR 


137 


spend  for  the  right  thing,  is  the  most  expensive  insti- 
tution in  the  municipality,  although  the  councilmen 
receive  but  nominal  salaries.  The  people  are  taxed 
to  the  limit,  but  there  is  never  a  surplus  in  the  treas- 
ury. No  business  man  in  any  city  would  permit  his 
private  affairs  to  be  conducted  for  a  moment  as  mu- 
nicipal business  is  conducted  under  the  old  ward  plan. 
It  would  be  entirely  too  expensive. 

Commission  government  provides  that  ample  sal- 
aries shall  be  paid  the  mayor  and  commissioners,  in 
order  to  insure  the  election  of  capable  men.  But  the 
best  answer  to  the  objection  that  the  commission  plan 
would  entail  a  financial  burden  is  found  in  the  results 
of  the  new  rule  in  every  city  where  it  has  been  thor- 
oughly tested.  In  Galveston,  Houston,  Dallas,  Des 
Moines,  Cedar  Rapids,  and  Leavenworth  it  has  proved 
to  be  a  dividend-paying  investment. 

These  arguments  of  the  Kansas  City  Star  are 
based  upon  long-extended  observation  on  the  ground 
and  a  deep  and  abiding  faith  in  democracy.  They  are 
valuable  not  only  in  themselves,  but  as  showing  how 
the  system  appeals  to  shrewd,  hard-headed,  successful 
newspaper  men,  who  are  desirous  of  making  their 
paper  a  true  organ  of  sound  public  opinion  and  a 
leader  in  public  affairs. 

Dr.  Ernest  S.  Bradford,  whose  paper  forms  one 
of  the  chapters  of  this  book,  represents  the  point  of 
view  of  a  careful,  studious  investigator.  He  gives  it 
as  his  opinion  based  upon  a  personal  visit  to  a  large 
number  of  commission-governed  cities  in  all  parts  of 
the  country  that  the  commission  form  is  important 


138     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

because  it  recognizes,  first,  the  need  of  power  reason- 
ably centralized  and  hence  gives  the  council  adminis- 
trative and  appointing  power  as  well  as  legislative 
authority;  and,  second,  because  the  means  of  popular 
control  provided  are  direct  and  many :  publicity  of 
proceedings  of  council  or  commission;  means  of  refer- 
ring all  ordinances,  including  franchises,  to  the  peo- 
ple; means  of  bringing  a  public  servant  up  sharply  for 
a  vote  of  confidence  or  lack  of  confidence;  means  of 
eliminating  national  politics  from  municipal  elections; 
means  for  insuring  a  system  of  appointment  for  merit 
among  employees  and  assistants;  that  wards  are  abol- 
ished, that  the  councilmen  are  all  elected  by  all  the 
voters.  This  is  a  valuable  part/of  the  plan,  but  not 
the  most  important. 

That  a  few  men — a  body  of  five  or  three  commis- 
sioners— are  chosen  to  act  as  a  managing  board,  in- 
stead of  fifteen  or  twenty,  or  two  boards  of  thirty 
or  forty  each,  is  decidedly  better  for  both  the  voters, 
who  have  fewer  men  to  elect,  and  for  the  commission, 
which  becomes  a  smaller  and  more  compact  body  for 
action;  but  this  is  only  one  among  several  important 
features.  Both  the  "  short  ballot "  and  election-at- 
large  are  safeguards  injected  into  the  system,  prior  to 
election,  and  hence  fundamental  in  determining  the 
conditions  under  which  officials  are  chosen;  yet  they 
are  not  sufficient.  Control  must  be  adequate  after 
election  also,  and  the  more  and  better  the  means  of 
control  the  less  is  it  likely  that  there  will  be  need  to 
use  them. 

One  other  important  element  of  control  must  not 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   FOR  139 

be  lost  sight  of — closely  connected,  indeed,  with  the 
exercise  of  administrative  power  by  the  commission — 
and  that  is  the  division  of  duties  among  the  commis- 
sioners. The  simple  and  effective  method  of  putting 
one  commissioner  in  charge  of  each  department  at 
once  conveniently  subdivides  the  work  and  localizes 
responsibility.  In  each  department,  employees  and 
subordinates  and  assistants  and  chiefs  are  accountable 
to  the  commissioner;  the  commissioner  is,  in  turn, 
chargeable  to  the  entire  board  for  his  department;  and 
both  single  commissioners  and  the  board  as  a  whole 
are  answerable  to  the  people  for  the  proper  conduct 
of  all  the  city's  affairs.  There  is  no  break  in  the  chain 
of  responsibility.  There  is  enough  power;  it  is  defi- 
nitely located ;  it  is  simply  organized ;  it  is  linked  with 
means  of  enforcing  accountability.  A  few  men  are 
elected,  and  upon  them  is  the  burden.  The  similarity 
to  the  business  corporation  is  marked.  The  same 
chain  of  responsibility  was  there  successfully  worked 
out  long  ago.  American  business  is  contributing  its 
best  element,  its  effective  form  of  organization,  its 
excellent  machinery  for  collective  action,  to  city  gov- 
ernment. In  place  of  careful  attention  to  the  cutting 
down  of  operating  expenses  and  the  increase  of  re- 
ceipts in  order  to  yield  resulting  profits,  there  is  sub- 
stituted a  careful  attention  to  cutting  down  operating 
expenses  and  increasing  public  revenues  (aside  from 
taxes)  for  the  general  benefit.  The  same  means  are 
used  in  both  instances,  but  for  different  ends.  Busi- 
ness methods  are  applied  to  government.  In  the  past 
it  has  been  assumed  that  because  the  ends  were  dif- 


I40     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

ferent,  different  methods  must  be  used  in  govern- 
mental administration  from  those  of  private  business. 
In  some  few  respects  they  are  different;  for  example, 
the  government  will  probably  never  push  the  rate  of 
wages  down  to  the  limit  sometimes  forced  by  private 
business,  but  the  same  care  to  get  value  received  may 
be  exercised,  similar  economics  and  improved  methods 
of  reducing  running  costs  and  similar  energy  in  se- 
curing a  reasonable  return  for  service  rendered,  may 
be  sought;  similar  correct  principles  of  organization 
may  be  followed.  The  commission  form  is  the  first 
earnest  attempt  to  apply  to  governmental  conditions 
the  successful  experience  of  the  corporation,  no  less 
significant  because  first  inaugurated  to  meet  a  crisis, 
no  less  substantial  because  adopted  rapidly.  The 
American  citizen  believes  thoroughly  in  commission 
government  for  cities,  not  because  it  is  called  a  com- 
mission, nor  because  it  seems  new,  but  because  he  is 
thoroughly  familiar  with  its  main  principles  as  applied 
in  business,  he  welcomes  it  with  genuine  enthusiasm, 
and  is  not  surprised  when  it  repays  his  confidence 
with  financial,  moral,  engineering,  and  general  civic 
improvement.^ 

There  is  a  form  of  argument,  however,  that  is 
apt  to  react.  It  is  one  which  claims  too  much.  To 
illustrate,  a  certain  editor  of  Des  Moines,  in  an  inter- 
view in  an  out-of-town  paper,  claimed  that  "  the  red- 
light  district  "  of  that  city  had  ceased  to  exist.-    This 

*  See  Proceedings  of  the  Buffalo  Meeting  of  the  National  Munici- 
pal League,  1910,  pages  276-78. 

*  See  the  Winnipeg  Farmer-Tribune,  August  10,  1910. 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   FOR  141 

claim  was  heralded  far  and  wide,  only  to  meet  with 
refutation  a  few  months  later  when  charges  were  pre- 
ferred by  the  Iowa  Law  and  Order  League  to  the 
effect  that  Des  Moines  was  a  wide-open  town.  An 
investigation  was  held  promptly — for  this  the  commis- 
sion was  entitled  to  credit.  The  responsibility  for  the 
conditions  upon  which  the  charges  were  based  was 
speedily  fixed  and  the  situation  controlled  in  the  inter- 
est of  decency  and  morality  to  the  credit  of  the  com- 
mission. 

Good  government  depends  primarily  upon  men. 
Good  laws  may  help.  Good  men  are  essential.  The 
red-light  district  or  its  equivalent  will  exist  so  long  as 
men  continue  the  practice  of  a  double  moral  stand- 
ard, so  long  as  men  regard  self-indulgence  as  more 
to  be  desired  than  self-control.  No  law  wall  make  men 
moral.  It  may  tend  to  remove  a  certain  amount  of 
temptation.  It  may  make  wrongdoing  difficult  instead 
of  easy  of  accomplishment.  On  the  other  hand,  laws 
may  be  so  complicated,  so  difficult,  that  the  practice  of 
virtue  may  be  made  difficult.  A  democracy  owes  it  to 
itself  to  have  the  laws  so  drafted  as  to  facilitate  virtu- 
ous action  and  to  obstruct  vice  and  viciousness. 

A  recent  writer  dwells  on  the  fact  that  the  com- 
mission government  in  Des  Moines  had  been  success- 
ful, but  adds  that  the  people  of  the  city  are  united 
in  the  determination  to  have  a  certain  quality  of  city 
government,  and  this  is  the  real  secret  of  the  success 
of  commission  government  there  and  elsewhere.  The 
movement  for  this  form  of  government  has  been  coin- 
cident with  the  development  of  a  new  civic  conscious- 


142 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


ness  in  the  American  people.  To-day  they  are  more 
intolerant  of  inefficient  and  defective  municipal  gov- 
ernment than  ever  before.  To-day  they  are  more 
insistent  on  higher  standards  and  less  indulgent  toward 
those  whose  interests  are  opposed  to  theirs. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   AGAINST   THE   SYSTEM 

At  the  Buffalo  meeting  of  the  National  Municipal 
League  there  was  a  vigorous  argument  pro  and  con 
on  the  merits  of  commission  government,  incident  to 
the  presentation  of  Dr.  Bradford's  paper.^  Among 
the  addresses  against  the  commission  government  of 
cities,  both  large  and  small,  but  especially  the  large, 
was  that  of  Ansley  Wilcox,  Esq.,  of  Buffalo.  It  is 
reproduced  here  as  showing  the  grounds  of  objection 
as  urged  against  the  plan.  In  substance  Mr.  Wilcox 
said: 

Fortunately,  there  are  many  things  upon  which 
we  all  agree,  and  these  can  be  stated  and  passed  away 
from  at  once.  All  of  us  present  here  are  undoubtedly 
in  favor  of  reformation  in  the  old  American  forms 
of  city  government,  of  which  Buffalo  has  rather  a 
bad  example — not  the  worst,  but  bad  enough — calling 
for  radical  improvements,  either  by  way  of  an  entirely 
new  charter  or  a  very  decided  simplification  of  our 
present  charter.  All  of  us  favor  the  highest  degree 
of  publicity  in  municipal  affairs;  all  of  us  favor  the 

*  See  Chapter  VI. 

143 


144 


CITY   GOVERNMENT  BY   COMMISSION 


most  effective  form  of  popular  nomination  of  munic- 
ipal candidates — direct  nominations,  if  that  is  prac- 
ticable, and  most  of  us  believe  that  it  is  practicable, 
at  least  in  cities;  all  of  us  favor  a  short  ballot  for 
cities,  few  officers  to  be  elected,  and  such  simple,  safe, 
and  sure  electoral  machinery  as  will  enable  the  voters 
most  readily  to  record  their  choice  and  make  it  effec- 
tive; all  of  us  favor  the  thorough  and  effective  appli- 
cation of  the  merit  system,  through  civil  service  laws 
and  rules  of  the  highest  efficacy;  all  of  us  favor  the 
simplest  form  of  city  charter,  which  will  fix  respon- 
sibility directly  upon  those  who  possess  power;  all  of 
us  are  in  favor  of  home  rule  in  the  highest  degree 
that  is  possible — that  is,  giving  our  cities  the  largest 
possible  degree  of  authority  to  rule  themselves,  even 
to  make  their  own  charters,  if  that  is  desirable,  and 
many  of  us  think  that  it  is. 

Then  we  come  to  the  question  whether  a  particular 
method  by  which  it  is  sought  to  accomplish  these  re- 
sults is  the  best  one,  either  as  applied  to  cities  in 
general  or  as  applied  to  the  larger  class  of  cities,  of 
which  Buffalo  is  one,  and  that  brings  us  to  the  topic 
of  the  day,  the  commission  form  of  government,  as 
applied  to  the  larger  American  cities,  meaning  cities 
of  more  than  200,000  inhabitants,  we  will  say,  to  take 
a  fair  dividing  line. 

The  conspicuous  thing  about  the  history  of  this 
movement  in  these  last  nine  years  since  it  started  after 
the  flood  in  Galveston,  in  1901,  has  been  that  it  has 
been  applied  to  a  large  number  of  small  cities,  none 
of  which,  I  think,  reaches  100,000  in  population,  ex- 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS    AGAINST 


145 


cept  Memphis,  which  has  about  150,000.  Memphis 
adopted  it  within  the  last  year,  and  has  not  yet  given 
it  anything  hke  a  trial;  but  Des  Moines  and  Kansas 
City,  which  had  adopted  it  before,  have  each  about 
85,000  inhabitants,  and  they  were  the  largest  up  to  the 
time  when  Memphis  adopted  it,  if  I  am  rightly  in- 
formed. 

Another  fact  to  which  attention  should  be  called 
is  that  most  of  these  cities,  even  as  small  cities,  have 
tried  the  plan  for  only  a  short  time.  There  is  one 
sentence  in  Dr.  Bradford's  paper  that  I  regret,  be- 
cause, although  I  know  he  did  not  mean  to  misstate 
the  facts,  yet  I  think  that  people  who  read  it  casually 
will  misconstrue  it.  That  is  where  he  says  the  results 
in  those  cities  which  have  had  the  plan  for  two,  three, 
five,  or  nine  years,  are  so  unmistakably  favorable  that 
an  impartial  investigation  cannot  but  be  impressive. 
If  you  look  at  the  table  which  Dr.  Bradford  prints, 
you  will  find  but  one  city  has  had  it  nine  years,  and 
that  is  Galveston,  which  has  not  had  the  commission 
form  in  the  sense  here  or  anywhere  else  advocated, 
but  a  very  different  form  of  commission  government, 
without  the  features  urged  upon  Buffalo  and  now 
urged  by  all  those  who  advocate  the  plan.  Only  one 
other  city  has  had  it  five  years,  and  that  is  Houston, 
and  that  again  has  not  had  the  features  which  dis- 
tinguish the  commission  form  of  government  as  now 
advocated.  Some  six  or  eight  cities — I  have  not 
counted  them — have  had  it  for  about  three  years,  and 
that  is  the  longest  period  of  trial  that  can  be  said  to 
have  been  given  to  this  system  in  any  considerable 


146     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

city,  and  in  anything  like  the  complete  form  in  which 
it  has  now  been  worked  out.  Des  Moines  has  had  it 
for  about  two  or  two  and  a  half  years,  and  the  other 
cities  which  are  held  up  as  examples,  not  more  than 
that,  but  rather  less. 

The  first  inquiry  in  the  mind  of  every  serious  man, 
who  wants  to  decide  this  question  on  its  merits,  is 
whether  any  real  trial  has  yet  been  given  this  new 
plan,  if  it  is  a  new  plan — and  I  do  not  think  it  is  really 
new — whether  it  has  had  a  period  of  trial  which  dem- 
onstrates its  successful  working.  The  old  saying  that 
a  new  broom  sweeps  clean  is  as  applicable  to  this  as 
to  everything  else.  I  venture  to  assert  the  proposi- 
tion that  any  radical  change  in  the  form  of  a  city 
government  brought  about  by  an  awful  physical  dis- 
aster like  that  at  Galveston,  or  as  a  revolt  against  the 
deplorable  situation  of  affairs  that  existed  in  Des 
Moines,  where  they  got  down  in  the  mire  and  had  to 
lift  themselves  out,  will  produce  at  first  good  results 
in  the  main;  but  the  question  is,  will  they  continue, 
will  the  plan  work  permanently  even  in  those  cities? 
But  that  I  am  not  going  to  argue. 

There  are  two  things  that  are  good  about  this  Des 
Moines  plan  of  city  government.  One  is,  as  I  have 
just  said,  that  it  introduces  a  change,  and  any  change 
from  a  very  bad  condition  of  things  is  sure  to  be  good 
for  at  least  a  little  while;  and  another  is  that  it  is 
simpler  and  more  comprehensible  in  many  respects 
than  our  old  typical  system  of  divided  responsibility 
— involving  large  numbers  of  elective  officers,  both 
administrative  and  legislative,  and  authority  so  split 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   AGAINST 


147 


up  among  them  and  their  appointees  that  nobody  has 
known  whom  to  hold  responsible  when  things  have 
gone  wrong.  Putting  the  power  all  into  the  hands  of 
five  men  is  certainly  simplifying  it.  The  question  is 
whether  it  is  simplifying  it  enough,  and  that  is  one 
place  where  I  think  the  plan  fails. 

As  against  this  plan,  I  stand  as  a  conservative  in 
favor  of  the  cardinal  principles  of  American  govern- 
ment, which  I  believe  are  as  applicable  to  cities,  at 
any  rate  to  large  cities,  as  they  are  to  nations  and  to 
states;  and  the  great  cities  of  this  country  are  in  many 
respects  more  complex  and  more  expensive  organisms 
than  the  national  government  was  at  the  time  of  the 
adoption  of  the  federal  constitution.  The  two  radical 
defects  in  this  proposed  system  are,  first,  that  it  is 
not  a  complete  simplification  of  the  city  government. 
It  is  not  a  sufficient  step  in  the  direction  of  concen- 
trating authority  and  fixing  responsibility.  There  are 
five  men  to  whom  is  given  the  executive  authority  and 
among  whom  the  responsibility  is  divided.  I  object 
to  this  division  of  responsibility.  I  advocate  one  man 
— absolutely  one.  Then  there  is  no  escaping  from 
responsibility.  We  do  not  need  and  do  not  want  five 
generals  for  an  army,  or  five  masters  for  a  household, 
or  five  mayors  for  a  city,  but  only  one.  I  am  a 
stronger  advocate  of  simplicity,  in  that  respect,  than 
the  advocates  of  this  plan  are. 

The  second  fundamental  and  radical  defect  in  the 
system  is  that  it  is  a  combination  of  the  legislative  and 
executive  functions  of  government  in  the  hands  of  one 
small  group  of  men.    A  body  of  five,  as  most  of  these 


148     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

charters  provide,  is,  I  say,  too  many  for  the  chief 
executive,  because  that  should  be  only  one.  It  is  too 
few  for  the  legislative  work  in  a  city  of  the  size  of 
Buffalo  with  its  425,000  people.  Five  may  be  enough 
for  Des  Moines  and  Cedar  Rapids,  but  five  cannot 
represent  the  entire  sentiment  of  the  city  of  Buffalo, 
and  give  reasonable  room  for  division  of  opinion  and 
for  debate  and  decision  of  things  by  majorities.  A 
majority  of  three  in  five  is  too  small  for  legislative 
action  of  whatever  character,  in  my  judgment.  At 
any  rate,  clearly  and  beyond  debate,  this  commission 
plan  of  city  government  involves  a  fusion  of  all  the 
executive  and  legislative  powers  in  the  hands  of  five 
men.  It  creates  a  bunch  of  five,  who  initiate  every- 
thing, pass  upon  everything,  carry  through  everything, 
and  then  certify  everything.  They  make  your  laws, 
if  you  are  going  to  have  municipal  laws,  they  make  up 
your  budget,  they  assess  your  taxes,  they  spend  your 
money,  they  conduct  your  public  works — then  they 
certify  themselves.  They  would  be  a  true  oligarchy, 
an  elected  oligarchy. 

Now,  that  is  not  a  system  of  government  which  is 
in  accordance  with  American  ideals,  or  with  any  other 
ideals  that  have  ever  worked  permanently  and  success- 
fully in  the  history  of  the  world;  and  it  has  been 
tried,  gentlemen,  from  the  beginning  of  history  down 
to  the  present  time.  There  is  nothing  new  about  it — 
absolutely  nothing  new.  It  has  been  tried  in  many 
varying  forms.  It  has  been  tried  in  the  form  of  dic- 
tatorships, in  Rome,  in  the  form  of  triumvirates,  in 
the  form  of  committees  of  safety  and  of  combinations 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   AGAINST 


149 


of  men  of  every  kind — if  I  had  an  hour  instead  of 
the  remnant  of  fifteen  minutes  I  could  point  out  some 
of  them  to  you — and  it  has  not  succeeded  permanently 
or  generally.  If  anyone  thinks  that  there  are  excep- 
tions to  this  statement  to  be  found  in  the  parliament- 
ary forms  of  government,  or  in  the  government  of 
cities  by  large  elective  councils  in  Great  Britain,  he 
will  find  on  closer  analysis  that  these  are  not  real 
exceptions.  Certainly  these  furnish  no  precedents  for 
the  commission  government  of  cities  after  the  Des 
Moines  plan.^ 

We  have  tried  commissions  in  Buffalo  in  branches 
of  our  city  government.  They  have  tried  them  in 
nearly  every  city  in  this  country.  We  have  governed 
our  police  by  commissions,  our  parks  by  commissions, 
our  public  works  by  commissions.  Commission  gov- 
ernment was  for  many  years  a  fad  in  this  country, 
and  it  has  become  discredited,  so  that  of  late  we  have 
been  doing  away  with  commissions  and  coming  to 
single  heads  for  departments  having  executive  func- 
tions and  some  minor  legislative  functions,  such  as 
park  boards,  and  police  boards,  and  have  been  trying 

1  On  this  point  Prof.  Augustus  Raymond  Hatton,  of  the  Western 
Reserve  University  Association,  Cleveland,  said  in  the  discussion: 
"  I  should  like  to  correct  the  last  statement  Mr.  Wilcox  made  in  his 
speech,  that  the  union  of  the  legislative  and  executive  power  is 
everywhere  unsuccessful.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  you  would  have  a 
very  hard  time  convincing  the  people  of  the  English  cities  of  the 
truth  of  that.  There  is  absolutely  no  division  of  those  powers,  and 
that  is  true  of  most  governments  of  the  world  working  under  the  par- 
liamentary system.  I  think  we  ought  not  to  labor  under  the  mis- 
conceptions as  to  what  experience  has  shown  in  regard  to  these 
forms  of  government." 


I50 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


to  concentrate  responsibility  in  that  way.  In  Erie 
County  and  throughout  New  York  a  commission 
elected  by  the  people  governs  our  counties.  The  board 
of  supervisors  is  a  commission  government.  It  has 
never  been  creditable — always  bad,  even  as  compared 
with  our  city  governments.  To  be  sure,  it  is  not  just 
this  kind  of  commission  government.  It  is  a  larger 
commission;  it  is  not  elected  at  large,  but  by  districts, 
but  it  is  an  attempt  at  the  same  thing.  So  I  say  there 
is  nothing  new  about  this  idea  of  government  by  a 
commission. 

But  the  one  thing  which  up  to  this  time  we  have 
always  agreed  upon  has  been  that  we  wanted  to  sim- 
plify our  city  governments.  It  has  been  thought  de- 
sirable to  remove  absolutely  from  debate  the  question 
as  to  who  is  responsible  for  good  or  bad  government, 
by  having  one  man  at  the  head  of  affairs  to  execute 
the  laws,  with  ample  powers,  and  make  him  re- 
sponsible. 

That  is  the  model  for  a  city  which  was  put  for- 
ward by  the  National  Municipal  League  in  its  "  Mu- 
nicipal Program,"  adopted  in  1899.  It  is  the  model 
which  I  want  to  hold  up  to  the  people  of  Buffalo  and 
of  other  great  cities,  and  which  I  shall  strive  for  until 
the  question  is  decided.  I  do  not  believe  the  people 
ever  will  decide  against  this  plan  and  in  favor  of  the 
Des  Moines  plan  with  their  eyes  open.  We  should 
elect  a  mayor  in  a  city  like  Buffalo  to  execute  the  laws 
in  all  respects,  to  administer  everything;  give  him  the 
appointment  of  every  administrative  officer,  even  the 
financial  officers,  although  there  are  some  who  stand 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   AGAINST  151 

with  me  in  the  main,  who  think  that  in  addition  to 
the  mayor  we  should  elect  one  financial  officer  to  han- 
dle the  funds  of  the  city.  I  think  that  is  a  weakness, 
and  a  departure  from  fundamental  principles,  and  I 
do  not  believe  in  it.  I  believe  the  mayor  should  have 
the  entire  power  of  appointment  and  removal,  includ- 
ing the  chief  financial  officer,  just  as  the  President  of 
the  United  States  has  in  the  national  government. 

Then,  of  course,  we  must  have  a  legislative  body, 
and  this  should  also  be  simplified.  We  have  tried  the 
bicameral  system  in  Buffalo  for  the  past  twenty  years, 
nearly.  I  do  not  think  it  has  been  a  failure — in  some 
respects  it  has  been  a  great  safeguard;  but  I  am  per- 
fectly willing  to  simplify  matters  by  abandoning  that. 
We  have  tried  ward  representation  in  our  board  of 
aldermen,  and  it  has  not  worked  well,  with  twenty-five 
small  wards.  Personally,  I  strongly  favor  reducing 
the  number  of  our  legislative  body  to  about  fifteen, 
perhaps  combining  the  two  chambers  into  one  and 
electing  some  of  them  at  large  and  some  perhaps  from 
large  districts,  much  larger  than  our  present  wards, 
combining  at  least  two  or  three  wards  into  one.  One 
great  objection  to  electing  them  all  at  large  is  that 
we  would  get  away  from  the  short  ballot  by  this;  we 
would  have  a  large  number  of  names  on  the  ticket  at 
every  election  to  vote  for.  The  greatest  desideratum 
to-day  is  for  a  short  ballot,  and  this  requires  us  to 
divide  up  the  election  of  legislators  to  some  extent  by 
districts,  in  order  to  give  the  individual  voter  fewer 
names  to  think  about,  to  debate  about,  when  he  comes 
to  vote.  But  let  us,  by  all  means,  simplify  the  legis- 
11 


152 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


lative  body,  certainly,  in  the  way  of  reducing  its  num- 
ber, and  enlarge  the  electorate  for  choosing  individual 
legislators  as  far  as  we  practically  can — these  are  prac- 
tical, rather  than  theoretical  questions — and  then  give 
the  mayor  a  veto  power  over  legislative  action.  Un- 
der that  system  we  will  have  the  highest  degree  of 
concentrated  authority,  the  highest  degree  of  sim- 
plicity, and  we  will  not  violate  our  American  tradi- 
tions, our  American  ideas  of  the  division  of  the  func- 
tions of  government  between  the  executive  and  the 
legislative  branches. 

It  is  perhaps  possible  that  in  a  smaller  community, 
under  100,000  people,  or  in  a  community  as  large  as 
Memphis,  the  legislative  functi9n  may  be  so  slight 
that  it  can  profitably  be  combined  with  executive 
functions.  That  is  possibly  true;  I  do  not  believe  it, 
but  I  am  not  going  to  argue  against  it  to-day,  because 
it  is  not  necessary.  But  I  say  to  you,  gentlemen,  that 
the  affairs  of  a  city  of  the  size  of  Buffalo,  and  still 
more  when  you  go  beyond  Buffalo  to  the  larger  cities, 
like  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  and  New  York, 
take  you  into  a  class  of  questions  which  cannot  safely 
be  intrusted  to  any  five  men,  working  either  in 
camera  or  in  public.  If  they  work  in  public  it  means 
that  they  have  newspaper  men  at  their  elbows,  to  find 
out  everything  they  do  or  propose  to  do,  and  be  in- 
formed in  advance  about  the  differences  of  opinion, 
thus  preventing  the  putting  through  of  negotiations 
for  the  benefit  of  the  city.  If  they  work  in  secret, 
they  are  crippled  and  hampered  by  the  fact  that  in  a 
body  of  five  men  three  can  manipulate  the   control 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   AGAINST 


153 


of  everything,  and  the  responsibility  is  divided  so  that 
the  people  cannot  know  who  is  to  blame  if  things 
go  wrong. 

Here  in  Buffalo,  to  get  back  to  the  local  situation, 
the  proponents  of  this  charter,  based  on  the  Des 
Aloines  plan,  have  said  in  the  past,  and  I  presume  they 
say  still,  that  they  themselves  would  not  recommend 
this  plan  to  us  unless  it  was  safeguarded  and  protected 
by  three  devices — the  initiative,  the  referendum,  and 
the  recall.  Whether  they  still  say  so  I  do  not  know, 
but  they  certainly  have  said  so  in  the  past.  They  do 
not  believe  enough  in  their  own  system  to  foist  it 
upon  us  without  these  safeguards.  That  discredits  the 
system  in  advance.  If  it  is  not  a  safe  system  of  city 
government  to  use  without  these  prophylactics — then 
I  do  not  think  it  can  be  said  to  be  a  very  good  system. 
It  has  been  a  serious  question  with  regard  to  some  indi- 
viduals, whether  their  advocacy  of  this  system  is  not 
based  really  upon  their  desire  to  introduce  into  the. 
city  government  the  initiative,  the  referendum,  and 
the  recall,  by  making  us  adopt  them  as  part  of  a  sys- 
tem that  couldn't  be  trusted  to  get  along  without 
these  adjuncts. 

Now,  the  initiative,  referendum,  and  recall  may 
be  good  things.  If  I  had  time,  I  should  like  to  discuss 
each  one  of  them.  To  some  extent  I  favor  the  refer- 
endum, but  only  to  a  limited  extent.  The  initiative, 
I  think,  is  unnecessary  to  legislate  about,  because  we 
have  it  now  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  recall,  I 
believe,  will  be  fatal  to  any  government  that  under- 
takes to  live  under   it.     But   I  cannot  debate   those 


154 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


propositions  within  the  remnant  of  my  allotted  time. 
What  I  do  want  to  say  is  this.  If  these  are  good 
devices  to  try,  for  Heaven's  sake  let  us  try  them  with- 
out taking  on  this  bad  system  of  city  government 
which  would  fail  without  them;  because  they  might 
not  prove  to  be  such  good  things  after  all,  and  we 
might  have  to  abandon  them,  and  then  what  should 
we  have  left  except  the  bad  and  unworkable  form  of 
government. 

We  can  apply  the  referendum  to  the  present  form 
of  city  government.  We  certainly  could  apply  it  to 
the  simpler  form  of  government  which  I  advocate. 
We  can  apply  all  these  features  to  that  form  of  city 
government,  if  they  are  good  things.  Therefore  we 
do  not  need  to  adopt  a  form  of  government  which 
they  call  new,  and  I  call  new  only  in  some  details, 
but  discredited  by  history  through  many  centuries,  a 
government  of  divided  responsibilities  and  commin- 
gled and  confused  powers — we  do  not  need  to  adopt 
that  plan  of  government  for  our  large  cities  in  order 
to  take  up  these  other  expedients  and  try  them — the 
initiative,  referendum,  and  recall.  We  can  try  them, 
if  it  is  necessary  or  desirable  to  do  so,  without  first 
adopting  a  form  of  government  which  would  be  bad, 
admittedly  bad,  if  these  expedients  should  fail  to  work 
successfully. 

Let  me  repeat,  and  attempt  to  sum  up  my  position 
in  a  few  words. 

I  stand,  and  shall  continue  to  stand,  for  a  simple 
form  of  city  government,  with  a  single  executive  head, 
the  mayor,  having  power  to  appoint  and  remove  all 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   AGAINST  155 

other  executive  and  administrative  officers,  like  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  but  subject,  of  course, 
to  laws  regulating  such  appointments  and  securing  a 
thorough  merit  system ;  and  a  legislative  body  of  mod- 
erate size  and  broad  powers,  but  strictly  legislative. 
This  should  be  preferably  about  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
men,  according  to  the  size  of  the  city,  some  of  them 
elected  by  large  districts  so  as  to  preserve  the  old  and 
popular  idea  of  local  representation,  say  nine  in  a  city 
like  Buffalo,  and  some  elected  by  the  whole  city — I  sug- 
gest six  in  Buffalo,  but  only  three  to  be  elected  at  one 
time,  so  as  not  to  destroy  the  possibility  of  a  short 
ballot. 

This  has  been  called  the  federal  form  of  city  gov- 
ernment, because  it  is  closely  modeled  on  our  national 
constitution;  but  I  prefer  to  call  it,  and  hope  that  it 
will  be  called  the  American  Form  of  City  Goverjir- 
ment,  because  of  its  resemblance  to  our  national  gov- 
ernment, and  because  it  is  the  legitimate  develop- 
ment of  American  ideas  and  in  harmony  with  our 
established  institutions  and  settled  principles  of  gov- 
ernment. 

Let  us  try  to  work  along  these  rational  lines,  and 
not  follow  after  false  gods — especially  as  they  appear 
to  be  old  and  discredited  gods. 

Later  in  the  discussion  Mr.  Wilcox  said: 

I  thought  I  had  eliminated,  so  far  as  any  local 
debate  was  concerned,  a  controversy  over  the  degree 
of  badness  of  our  present  form  of  city  charter,  by 
saying  when  I  started  out,  that  in  this  discussion  of 


156     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

the  form  of  a  new  charter  we  were  all  agreed  upon 
certain  things;  that  we  all  agreed  upon  the  need  of 
simplifying  the  charter  of  the  city  of  Buffalo,  and 
others  like  it — upon  a  larger  degree  of  popular  control 
over  the  affairs  of  the  city,  upon  a  greater  degree  of 
publicity,  and  upon  the  need  of  other  reforms. 

The  question  is  how  to  achieve  these  desired  re- 
forms. I  will  devote  the  ten  minutes  now  allowed  me 
to  the  merits  of  this  question. 

I  want  to  point  out,  briefly,  the  fallacy  of  those 
who  argue  in  favor  of  a  control  of  the  affairs  of  a 
city  by  a  board  of  five  men,  from  any  supposed  anal- 
ogy to  the  management  of  great  business  or  railway 
corporations.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  great  corpora- 
tions of  this  country  do  not  furnish  any  sort  of  prece- 
dent or  parallel  for  this  form  of  government,  but 
certain  small  corporations  do.  This  is  an  illustration 
of  the  danger  of  assuming  that  because  a  small  city 
may  thrive  under  this  system  of  government  by  a  com- 
mission, a  large  city  would  thrive  under  it.  In  the 
case  of  small  corporations,  as  has  been  correctly  said, 
the  stockholders  usually  attend  the  annual  meetings 
to  vote  for  directors,  they  take  an  interest  in  the  an- 
nual reports,  and  they  actually  do  select  the  directors, 
who,  to  some  extent  at  least,  direct  the  affairs  of  the 
corporation.  In  the  case  of  the  great  railroads  and 
industrial  corporations,  whose  affairs  are  extensive, 
and  whose  stock  is  widely  dispersed,  it  is  fallacy  to 
say  that  there  is  any  popular  election  of  directors. 
Of  course,  the  stockholders  are  always  notified  of  an- 
nual elections  and  given  a  chance  to  vote;  but  the 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   AGAINST 


157 


ticket  is  made  up  by  the  old  managers  or  by  a  few 
controlling  stockholders,  and  there  is  ordinarily  no 
chance  for  any  opposition  or  for  any  other  ticket  to 
be  elected.  The  majority  of  the  stockholders  do  not 
vote  willingly.  They  do  not  vote  at  all  except  as  they 
are  drummed  up  and  asked  again  and  again  to  vote 
by  proxy,  for  the  sake  of  supporting  the  administra- 
tion if  nothing  else,  where  there  is  no  contest.  They 
send  you  their  forms  and  beg  you  to  send  a  proxy, 
and  give  you  a  stamped  envelope  to  mail  it  in,  and 
then  send  personally  to  ask  you  for  it,  if  you  haven't 
sent  it,  in  order  to  get  the  votes  out.  Finally,  all 
the  votes  are  cast  by  the  man  who  holds  these 
proxies. 

In  this  way  directors  of  a  big  corporation  are 
elected  in  form,  but  they  are  in  effect  self -perpetrating 
bodies,  except  after  some  great  change  in  the  owner- 
ship of  stocks.  If  there  is  any  one  fact  that  has  been 
patent  in  American  industrial  history  for  the  past  fifty 
years,  it  is  that  the  directors  of  large  corporations 
have  not  directed  their  affairs.  A  vast  amount  of 
criticism  has  been  poured  out  upon  the  typical  board 
of  directors  for  not  attending  meetings,  for  not  know- 
ing what  is  going  on,  for  allowing  executive  officers 
to  run  the  corporation;  and  that  criticism  has  been 
to  a  large  extent  just.  I  myself  carried  a  case  to  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  based  upon  that  very 
proposition,  in  the  endeavor  to  hold  the  directors  of 
a  national  bank  personally  responsible  for  staying 
away  from  the  bank  and  allowing  the  president  to 
ruin  it,   through   their  nonattention   to   their   duties. 


158     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

The  law  on  that  subject  was  not  settled  then,  and  is 
practically  not  well  settled  now.  Although  the  Su- 
preme Court,  in  my  case,  laid  down  some  good  general 
doctrines  as  to  what  directors  ought  to  do,  it  did  not 
hold  them  responsible  for  what  they  had  not  done  in 
that  particular  case. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  great  corporations  are 
controlled  by  a  few  big  stockholders  who  have  major 
interests  in  the  stock,  who  make  the  board  of  direc- 
tors by  voting  for  them,  who  control  them  after  they 
are  elected,  who  practically  select  the  president  and 
the  executive  committee  that  may  work  with  him. 
Such  an  executive  committee,  where  it  exists,  is  usu- 
ally made  up  to  work  in  harmony  with  the  president, 
and  under  his  domination.  The  president,  or  some 
one  man,  however  named,  is  usually  the  executive 
force  in  control  of  a  great  corporation  in  this  country. 
That  is  absolutely  correct,  as  a  statement  of  practical 
results,  whatever  may  be  the  theory  of  corporate  man- 
agement. Surely  there  is  no  precedent  in  this  practice 
of  corporations  that  we  want  to  follow  in  our  city 
governments.  No  inference  in  favor  of  the  commis- 
sion plan  of  city  government  can  be  drawn  from  any 
supposed  analogy  to  the  directors  of  a  great  cor- 
poration. 

I  am  just  as  much  in  favor  as  any  of  my  friends 
are  of  popularizing  our  city  governments,  of  giving 
the  people  the  right  to  vote  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, and  to  give  direct  expression  to  their  wishes; 
but  I  want  to  do  it  in  a  practical  way,  and  so  as  really 
to  secure  the  end  sought  to  be  attained,  and  not  in 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   AGAINST 


159 


an  illusory  way,  which  will  only  lead  to  fresh  disap- 
pointments. 

This  brings  me  to  some  brief  discussion  of  the  in- 
itiative, the  referendum,  and  the  recall.  The  initiative 
is  nothing  more  than  an  advance  expression  of  the 
popular  will  upon  a  subject;  and  the  popular  will  can 
be  expressed  without  the  form  of  voting — it  can  make 
itself  felt  by  elective  officers  a  great  deal  more  readily 
in  other  ways  than  it  can  by  a  formal  vote.  If  you 
provide  for  a  popular  vote,  that  gives  your  elective 
officer  a  place  of  refuge  behind  which  he  can  hide,  if 
he  wants  to.  Until  you  take  the  vote  he  can  stand 
back  and  say :  "  Show  me  by  a  vote  that  you  want 
this  thing,"  if  his  inclination  is  against  it;  he  can  re- 
fuse to  listen  to  delegates  who  come  to  argue  with 
him;  he  can  refuse  to  heed  the  soundings  of  popular 
demands  or  protests  which  come  from  this  and  that 
direction,  and  in  all  the  ways  that  a  man  w'ho  has 
been  voted  for  in  the  past  knows  of  and  listens  for 
assiduously.  It  is  difficult  to  get  the  people  together 
to  vote  unanimously  or  in  large  numbers  on  any  propo- 
sition. I  believe  I  am  correct  in  saying  that  the  in- 
itiative, in  the  shape  of  a  formal  vote,  has  seldom 
been  tried  in  American  cities,  and  that  when  tried  it 
has  not  produced  very  profitable  results. 

Mr.  Stockton  :  It  was  tried  twice  in  Buffalo,  on 
the  charter  question. 

Mr.  Wilcox  :  That  was  a  special  case  involving 
a  radical  change  in  city  government,  and  totally  unlike 
the  ordinary  questions  which  will  arise  when  the  city 
government  has  been  settled.     But  it  seems  to  illus- 


i6o     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

trate  the  difficulty  in  making  the  initiative  work, 
and  its  weakness  as  a  popular  weapon  for  self-govern- 
ment. 

The  practical  difficulty  about  the  initiative  and  the 
referendum  both,  when  put  in  operation,  is  that  you 
do  not  get  an  expression  of  the  popular  sentiment 
which  indicates  what  a  majority  of  the  people  really 
think  or  desire.  Only  a  few  people  vote  at  all.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  vote  on  our  proposed  Buffalo 
charter,  which  my  friends  talk  about  as  being  such  an 
extraordinary  indorsement  of  that  scheme,  was  re- 
garded by  practical  men,  who  were  used  to  going  to 
elections  to  obtain  public  support,  as  discrediting  the 
whole  movement,  because  it  was  so  small.  They  did 
not  consider  that  the  people  indorsed  the  plan.  It 
had  undoubtedly  a  three- fourths  majority  of  the  votes 
cast  for  and  against  it;  but  only  about  one  seventh  of 
those  actually  voting  at  that  election  took  enough 
interest  to  vote  on  this  question  at  all.  One  man  in 
seven  voted  on  the  question,  six  men  in  seven  ignored 
it,  although  a  very  active  and  intelligent  campaign 
had  been  made  to  bring  out  a  large  vote  in  favor  of 
the  proposition.  That  is  to  say,  of  the  people  who 
actually  voted  on  that  day,  about  six  sevenths  did  not 
care,  and  of  the  one  seventh  who  did  care,  a  quarter 
were  opposed  to  the  proposed  charter,  thus  leaving  a 
very  small  minority  actively  in  favor  of  the  proposi- 
tion. That  is  the  result  usually  attained  by  referen- 
dum votes  in  this  state  on  constitutional  amendments, 
or  on  any  sort  of  question.  If  you  require  a  large 
percentage  to  vote  upon  the  proposition,   then  it  is 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   AGAINST  i6i 

usually  impossible  to  get  out  a  sufficient  affirmative 
vote. 

To  define  my  own  position,  I  still  believe  in  the 
referendum  to  a  limited  extent.  I  believe  that  in  the 
case  of  great  franchises,  and  questions  of  large  im- 
portance in  the  way  of  disposing  of  the  city's  prop- 
erty, these  may  properly  be  submitted  to  a  popular 
vote,  but  with  the  requirement  that  the  vote  should 
exceed  a  certain  minimum  limit  before  it  is  effective 
for  any  purpose  whatever,  and  otherwise  the  action 
of  the  city  officials  should  stand.  I  do  not  believe  in 
calling  on  the  people  to  vote  frequently,  upon  all  man- 
ner of  questions,  because  of  the  many  disadvantages 
which  it  involves  and  the  little  consequence  which 
should  be  attached  to  a  small  vote.  Even  within  these 
narrow  limits,  I  am  doubtful  of  its  practical  value. 

As  to  the  recall,  I  want  to  point  out  one  serious 
consideration  which  I  hope  your  minds  w^ill  fasten 
upon  and  dwell  upon,  long  after  this  debate  has  been 
forgotten.  My  friends  on  the  other  side  say  with 
great  rhetorical  force  that  it  is  proper  and  right  that 
the  people  who  elect  a  public  servant  should  have  the 
power  to  call  him  back  if  he  doesn't  satisfy  them,  or 
if  he  does  wrong.  That  sounds  very  fine  indeed.  But 
it  is  destructive  of  stable  government.  It  is  destruc- 
tive of  the  feeling  of  confidence  on  the  part  of  the 
officer  elected,  because  he  must  certainly  stand  in 
terror,  if  this  power  is  exercised,  or  is  practically  ex- 
ercisable, of  being  caught  just  in  the  course  of  some 
line  of  action  which  he  is  satisfied  about  in  his  own 
conscience,  which  he  believes  is  going  to  be  a  good 


i62     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

thing,  but  which  has  not  demonstrated  itself  at  that 
moment.  He  may  then  be  called  upon  to  justify  him- 
self, hauled  over  the  coals  and  subjected  to  a  recall 
vote  at  a  time  when  he  has  not  been  able  to  prove 
himself.  Thus  it  is  obvious  that  it  would  make  an 
honest  and  well-meaning  official  timid  and  overcau- 
tious about  any  new  or  untried  line  of  action. 

But  here  is  a  worse  result  that  would  follow  from 
the  recall.  The  American  people  on  the  whole  have 
a  tendency  to  be  conservative  in  the  selection  of  their 
public  servants.  They  think  twice.  There  are  always 
men  seeking  for  the  popular  suffrage  who  have 
schemes  to  promote  or  to  project  upon  the  people, 
honestly  or  dishonestly.  They  hold  out  large  prom- 
ises that  appeal  to  the  popular  imagination.  Those 
men  usually  do  not  get  elected.  They  sometimes  be- 
come candidates,  sometimes  command  large  votes,  but 
usually  are  not  actually  chosen  to  lead  the  people  after 
false  illusions.  But  if  we  have  in  any  municipal  sys- 
tem or  any  other  system  a  provision  that  the  public 
servant,  after  being  elected,  can  be  lightly  recalled,  I 
prophesy  that  the  voters  will  be  much  more  likely  to 
try  out  such  schemes  on  the  promises  of  the  schemers, 
and  at  times  of  unrest  you  cannot  keep  the  people  from 
electing  them.  If  a  man  of  fairly  good  character,  but 
demagogical  in  tendency,  appeals  to  popular  ideals  and 
promises  great  reforms,  we  now  hesitate  to  put  him  in 
office  for  two  or  four  years  and  let  him  stay  there,  sub- 
ject only  to  the  ordinary  power  of  removal;  but  if  he 
can  be  tried  for  six  months,  and  then  if  he  doesn't 
make  good  we  think  we  can  exercise  the  recall,  this 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS    AGAINST  163 

will  diminish  the  responsibility  of  the  people  in  electing 
their  officers,  and  encourage  them  to  elect  less  stable 
and  reliable  men.  That  is  the  serious  thought  which 
I  want  to  leave  in  your  minds. 

I  could  if  I  chose,  and  if  it  would  not  project  me 
into  other  discussions,  point  out  to  you  well-known 
popular  leaders  who  have  been  defeated  because  of  the 
prevailing  conservatism  of  our  people,  because  the 
people  did  not  dare  trust  to  their  fair  promises,  and 
the  world  now  agrees  that  they  were  wisely  defeated; 
yet  who  would  ha\e  been  elected  if  the  idea  had  pre- 
vailed that  they  could  be  recalled  after  a  few  months 
or  a  year  or  two  of  trial,  if  they  did  not  make 
good. 

Therefore  I  repeat,  gentlemen,  that  I  am  opposed 
to  the  recall,  as  a  part  of  our  system  of  city  govern- 
ment, first  and  principally  because  it  would  lessen  the 
responsibility  of  the  people  in  facing  their  elections, 
and  would  encourage  them  to  elect  volatile  and  dema- 
gogical candidates;  and  secondly,  because  it  would 
tend  to  weaken  the  courage  and  confidence  of  honest 
officials,  when  elected,  and  w^ould  produce  a  feeling 
of  instability  and  uncertainty,  and  thus  would  be  de- 
structive of  strong  and  efficient  administration  of  the 
government. 

Still  later  in  the  discussion  Mr.  Wilcox  said: 

I  want  to  enter  a  protest  against  anyone  describing 
the  plan  of  city  government  which  I  have  advocated 
as  autocratic. 

When  I  propose,  as  I  do,  that  the  executive  power 


i64     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

of  a  city  government  should  be  concentrated  in  its 
mayor,  that  is  not  creating  an  autocracy.  The  mayor, 
of  course,  would  be  responsible,  and  it  is  in  order  to 
make  him  responsible,  readily  and  instantly,  that  I 
and  others  like  me  propose  that  plan.  You  could  still 
have  your  recall  as  to  the  mayor,  if  you  must  have  it, 
and  it  would  be  far  more  effective  as  against  such  a 
mayor  than  a  recall  as  to  one  of  five  men,  because 
there  would  be  no  doubt  whom  you  should  recall  if 
you  wanted  to  recall  anybody.  The  government  of 
the  United  States  is  not  an  autocracy,  and  I  am 
proposing  exactly  the  same  scheme  for  the  munici- 
pality. 

Now,  as  to  legislation,  we  all  favor  home  rule  for 
cities.  We  all  want  to  enlarge  the  powers  of  our 
cities,  to  give  them  as  far  as  possible  the  power  to 
legislate  for  themselves,  to  make  and  unmake  their 
own  charters,  to  make  laws  for  the  people  wuthin  their 
own  borders — they  may  be  called  ordinances,  but  they 
are  really  laws.  In  these  meetings  the  advocacy  has 
been  pronounced,  and  very  well  received,  of  the  power 
of  the  municipality  to  regulate  the  liquor  traffic,  and 
all  that  that  means,  within  its  own  borders.  Is  it  safe 
to  enlarge  the  powers  of  local  legislation  and  at  the 
same  time  give  to  a  small  executive  body  the  power 
of  legislation?  Is  that  rational?  Is  it  consistent? 
Should  your  legislation  be  done  by  the  same  men  who 
are  executing  those  very  laws,  or  should  you  have  a 
separate  legislative  body  ?  I  submit  it  to  you  for  con- 
sideration. I  do  not  think  the  notion  of  combining 
the  legislative  and  executive  functions,  upon  the  plea 


POPULAR   ARGUMENTS   AGAINST  165 

that  the  legislative  functions  of  a  city  are  inconsid- 
erable and  therefore  can  safely  be  so  combined,  is 
consistent  with  the  idea  of  enlarging  these  legislative 
functions,  and  trusting  municipalities  to  legislate  for 
themselves. 


CHAPTER    IX 

IS   THE    COMMISSION    FORM    APPLICABLE    TO    LARGE 
CITIES  ? 

Should  our  large  cities  adopt  the  commission 
form  of  government  is  a  question  that  is  receiving 
an  ever-increasing  amount  of  attention.  At  the  Buf- 
falo ^  meeting  of  the  National  Municipal  League  in 
November,  1910,  this  phase  of  the  subject  came  in 
for  a  very  considerable  amount  of  attention,  opinion 
being  very  considerably  divided.  To  present  the  mat- 
ter fully  the  editor  of  this  volume  asked  Horace  E. 
Deming,  a  long-time  student  of  municipal  problems 
and  the  author  of  "  The  Government  of  American 
Cities,"  to  discuss  the  question.  His  paper  follows.  It 
in  turn  is  followed  by  a  short  argument  prepared  by 
Knowlton  Mixes,  Esq.,  a  prominent  advocate  of  com- 
mission government  in  Buffalo  answering  the  question 
with  an  unqualified  affirmative.  Here  is  Mr.  Dem- 
ing's  paper : 

The  so-called  commission  form  of  city  govern- 
ment made   its   first  appearance   in   Galveston,   Tex, 

*  In  Buflfalo  there  have  been  two  affirmative  votes  on  advisory 
referendums,  and  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  this  spring,  by  a  vote 
of  318  to  31  indorsed  the  commission-government  idea.     The  popu- 
lation of  Buffalo  in  1910  was  423,715, 
166 


APPLICABLE   TO   LARGE    CITIES?  167 

This  is  how  it  happened.  In  1900  a  hurricane  de- 
stroyed the  city's  defenses  against  the  gulf.  Business 
was  prostrate,  the  pubhc  treasury  was  bankrupt,  and 
Galveston's  government,  the  common  type  in  Ameri- 
can cities,  hopelessly  incompetent  to  cope  with  the 
situation.  A  voluntary  committee  took  hold.  It  pro- 
posed to  the  state  legislature  that  a  commission  of  five 
men,  three  appointed  by  the  governor  and  two  elected 
at  large,  be  put  in  charge  of  the  city's  affairs,  who 
should  undertake  the  reorganization  of  its  finances 
and,  if  possible,  put  the  city  on  its  feet  again  as  a 
going  concern,  just  as  might  be  attempted  in  the  case 
of  any  large  corporation  in  financial  distress.  The 
people  of  Galveston  had  had  for  many  years  abundant 
experience  of  the  inferior  quality  of  its  local  govern- 
ment, in  spite  of  various  efforts  to  better  it.  They 
were  now  in  dire  distress,  and  the  inability  of  its  then 
administration  to  do  anything  effective  toward  res- 
cuing the  city  from  its  financial  slough  was  con- 
spicuous. The  failure  of  previous  attempts  to  secure 
an  efficient  city  government  through  the  local  elec- 
torate made  the  business  men  of  Galveston  willing  to 
put  the  conduct  of  the  city's  affairs  in  the  hands  of  a 
commission  dominated  by  state-appointed  officials. 
The  desperate  financial  straits  of  the  city  required 
prompt  treatment  and  the  state  legislature  responded 
favorably  to  the  appeal  of  Galveston's  business  men. 
The  experiment  began  in  1901. 

The  board  of  five  promptly  reorganized  the  disor- 
dered public  finances,  and  as  if  by  magic  the  bankrupt 
city  became  a  solvent  going  concern.     Intent  upon 
12 


i68     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

getting  a  dollar's  worth  for  a  dollar  paid,  the  board 
revolutionized  the  conduct  of  the  city's  business  in 
every  department.  Galveston  was  a  small  city,  there 
were  no  complex  administrative  problems,  its  budget 
was  a  matter  of  relatively  small  amount.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  board  were  neither  required  nor  expected 
to  give  their  whole  time  to  the  city's  affairs ;  each  went 
on  attending  to  his  private  business.  Yet  the  city's 
bonds,  which  had  been  selling  at  60,  rose  to  a  pre- 
mium, and  there  was  a  saving  of  one  third  in  the  city's 
running  expenses,  with  every  administrative  depart- 
ment lifted  to  a  higher  standard  of  efficiency  than  ever 
before  in  its  history. 

Then  the  unexpected  happened.  The  courts  de- 
clared that  every  member  of  the  "board  must  be  elected 
by  the  voters  of  the  city,  and  in  1903  began  the  ex- 
periment of  electing  at  large  all  the  members.  This 
was  an  abandonment  of  the  commission  idea,  but  it 
still  left  the  control  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
government  of  the  city  in  a  small  board  of  five.  The 
original  members  were  all  elected,  and  the  city's  pub- 
lic business  continued  to  be  as  efficiently  transacted 
as  before.  Thus  out  of  the  dire  financial  extremity 
of  a  small  city  in  Texas,  and  an  unlooked-for  inter- 
pretation of  the  Texas  Constitution,  came  the  device 
of  a  small  board  locally  elected  at  large  which  exer- 
cises all  the  legislative,  administrative,  and  execu- 
tive powers  granted  a  city.  The  name,  commission 
form,  appropriate  at  the  beginning  when  the  ma- 
jority of  the  members  were  appointed  by  the  state, 
still  clings;  and  under  this  title  a  form  of  govern- 


APPLICABLE    TO    LARGE    CITIES?  169 

ment,  brand-new  in  the  United  States  as  applied  to 
cities,  has  gained  increasing  and  widespread  popular 
favor. 

The  experience  of  any  city  under  this  new  form 
of  city  government  has  been  very  brief.  Galveston 
has  had  the  longest,  nearly  ten  years;  Houston  comes 
next  with  nearly  six  years.  Five  other  Texas  cities, 
of  which  Dallas  is  the  largest,  and  Lewiston,  Idaho, 
have  had  nearly  four  years;  three  other  cities,  of  which 
Des  Moines  is  the  largest,  approximately  three  years. 
Thirty- four  have  not  yet  completed  two  years ;  thirty- 
two  are  in  the  first  year  of  their  experience.  In  four- 
teen cities  which  have  adopted  the  plan,  it  has  not  yet 
been  put  into  operation.*  Brief  as  has  been  the  expe- 
rience, however,  there  can  be  no  manner  of  doubt 
that,  in  each  of  the  cities  in  which  the  commission 
plan  has  been  tried,  there  has  been  a  notable  change 
for  the  better  in  its  government.  Especially  on  its 
financial  side,  the  results  under  the  commission  plan 
have  presented  an  immediate  and  often  startlingly 
favorable  contrast  to  those  produced  under  the  sort 
of  city  government  it  replaced. 

Thus  far  most  of  the  commission-governed  cities 
have  been  small,  with  a  population  under  25,000; 
there  are  six  with  a  population  between  75,000  and 
95,000.  Memphis,  which  has  approximately  131,000 
inhabitants,  inaugurated  the  commission  plan  in  Janu- 
ary of  the  present  year.  Recently  two  more  cities 
with  populations  in  excess  of  100,000  have  adopted 

*  This  was  written  in  December,  1910. 


lyo 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 


the  plan,  and  the  agitation  in  its  favor  is  spreading 
to  yet  larger  cities.  It  is  well  worth  while,  therefore, 
to  consider  whether,  as  is  claimed  by  so  many  of  its 
advocates,  there  has  been  found  in  the  commission 
plan  a  cure  for  the  evils  of  municipal  misgovernment 
of  which  our  country  has  furnished,  and  is  still  fur- 
nishing, so  many  examples. 

The  central  idea  of  the  commission  plan  of  city 
government,  as  worked  out  in  Galveston,  is  the  vest- 
ing of  all  the  legislative,  executive,  and  administrative 
authority  granted  the  city  in  a  single  small  board, 
usually  of  five  members,  elected  at  large.  Galveston's 
example  has  also  been  followed  in  the  division  of  the 
administrative  work  of  the  city  into  departments, 
usually  five,  to  the  supervision  of  each  of  which  the 
board  assigns  one  of  its  members,  his  action  as  such 
supervisor  being  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  board. 
The  board  decides  all  questions  of  policy,  organizes 
the  departments,  creates  and  alters  bureaus,  discharges 
and  appoints  the  members  of  the  city's  civil  service 
and  fixes  their  salaries.  The  sessions  of  the  board 
are  open  to  the  public  and  the  votes  of  the  members 
are  matters  of  public  record. 

The  office  and  duties  of  mayor  as  commonly  un- 
derstood are  usually  abolished,  though  his  position  is 
still  in  some  respects  more  important  than  that  of  his 
colleagues.  As  a  rule,  however — a  rule  to  which  there 
are  some  marked  exceptions — except  as  occupying  a 
somewhat  more  dignified  position,  he  is,  save  in  cer- 
tain emergencies,  a  mere  member  of  the  board  with 
a  vote  but  no  veto. 


APPLICABLE   TO   LARGE   CITIES? 


171 


It  is  claimed  that  this  centrahzing  of  power  in 
a  small  board  elected  at  large : 

Attracts  and  concentrates  the  attention  of  the 
voters  upon  the  character  and  capacity  of  the  candi- 
dates for  its  membership  and  upon  the  conduct  of 
each  member  during  his  term  of  office; 

Abolishes  sectional  lines  and  makes  each  member 
a  representative  of  the  interests  of  the  entire  city; 

Simplifies  the  structural  form  of  the  city  govern- 
ment and  fixes  responsibility  for  the  conduct  of  the 
city's  public  affairs  upon  a  few  men; 

Insures  constant  publicity  in  the  transaction  of  the 
city's  business,  thereby  creating  an  informed  and  alert 
public  opinion; 

Makes  the  elective  city  officers  so  few  in  number 
and  so  important  and  powerful  that  the  best  and  most 
capable  men  will  compete  for  the  honor  and  oppor- 
tunities of  membership  in  the  board;  and  makes  the 
official  behavior  of  each  member  so  conspicuous  and 
the  responsibility  of  his  position  so  great  that  if,  for 
any  reason,  a  man  of  inferior  caliber  should  be  elected 
he  would  nevertheless  work  assiduously  to  promote  the 
public  interests. 

The  simplification  of  the  structural  plan  of  city 
government  and  the  drastic  reduction  of  the  number 
of  elective  city  offices  in  commission-governed  cities 
are  an  almost  incalculable  improvement  upon  the  for- 
mer intricate  complexity,  the  dispersed  and  dissipated 
responsibility  which  have  been  characteristic  of  Ameri- 
can city  government,  and  the  confused  and  confusing 
election-day  ballots  which  the  city's  voters  were  com- 


172 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 


pelled  to  use.  But  to  have  a  city  government  whose 
poHcy  is  to  be  representative  of  the  informed  pub- 
lic opinion  of  its  citizens  and  whose  administrative 
personnel  is  to  be  efficient,  implies  and  requires  much 
more  than  simplicity  in  its  structure  and  few  elective 
offices.  Essential  as  these  are,  they  are  merely  aids. 
And  they  are  not  the  only  things  essential. 

It  is  significant  that  the  great  majority  of  the  cities 
adopting  the  commission  plan  since  the  experience  of 
Galveston  introduced  it  to  popular  favor,  have  been 
unwilling  to  rely  solely  upon  the  intrinsic  merits  of 
the  original  plan,  and  have  added  other  features  in- 
tended to  strengthen  control  by  the  voters  over  the 
governing  board  and  the  enforceable  accountability 
of  its  members  to  the  public.  "The  "  initiative  "  and 
"  referendum  "  were  early  modifications  of  the  com- 
mission plan,  and  a  very  large  proportion  of  com- 
mission-governed cities  have  added  to  these  the  "  re- 
call." The  Des  Moines  charter,  adopted  in  1908, 
which  is  regarded  as  perhaps  the  best  and  most  im- 
proved model,  contains  all  three  of  these  proposed 
methods  of  popular  control  of  the  council,  as  the  com- 
mission is  called  in  Des  Moines,  and  in  addition  a 
compulsory  referendum  upon  all  grants  of  franchises. 
It  also  has  provisions  intended  to  increase  the  knowl- 
edge of  how  the  public  business  is  transacted,  and  at- 
tempts to  meet  the  spoils  evil  in  the  city's  administra- 
tive service. 

In  Des  Moines  a  petition  signed  by  qualified  elect- 
ors equal  in  number  to  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent  of 
the  entire  vote  for  all  candidates  for  mayor  at  the  last 


APPLICABLE   TO    LARGE    CITIES? 


173 


preceding  general  municipal  election,  may  submit  a  pro- 
posed ordinance  to  the  council,  and  if  the  petition  con- 
tains a  request  that  in  case  the  council  does  not  pass 
the  ordinance  it  be  submitted  to  the  people,  then  the 
council  must  either  pass  the  proposed  ordinance  within 
twenty  days  unaltered  or  call  a  special  election  (un- 
less there  is  a  general  election  within  ninety  days)  and 
submit  it  to  the  voters.  This  is  the  initiative.  In 
Des  Moines  any  number  of  such  ordinances  may  be 
submitted  at  the  same  election,  but  there  shall  not 
be  more  than  one  special  election  for  such  purpose 
in  any  period  of  six  months.  A  proposition  to  re- 
peal or  amend  such  an  ordinance  must  be  submitted 
to  the  popular  vote  at  an  ensuing  general  city 
election. 

No  ordinance  (except  under  certain  emergencies) 
shall  go  into  effect  before  ten  days  from  the  time  of 
its  passage.  If  during  this  ten  days  a  petition  signed 
by  the  same  percentage  as  in  the  case  of  the  initiative 
be  filed  with  the  council  protesting  against  the  ordi- 
nance, the  council  must  reconsider;  and,  if  the  or- 
dinance is  not  repealed,  it  must  be  submitted  to  a 
special  or  general  election  as  already  described.  This 
is  the  referendum.  There  is  also  a  compulsory  refer- 
endum upon  the  granting,  renewing,  and  extending  of 
all  franchises. 

If  a  petition  signed  by  the  necessary  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  the  qualified  voters  so  request,  any  member 
of  the  council  must  either  give  up  his  office  or  at  an 
election,  held  not  less  than  thirty  nor  more  than  forty 
days  after  the  petition  has  been  duly  certified,  receive 


174 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


more  votes  than  any  competitor  for  his  unexpired 
term.    This  is  the  recall. 

In  the  interest  of  publicity,  the  Des  Moines  char- 
ter also  requires  that  every  ordinance  or  resolution 
appropriating  money,  ordering  any  street  improve- 
ment or  sewer,  making  or  authorizing  any  contract, 
granting  any  franchise  or  right  to  use  the  streets, 
bridges,  or  public  places  of  the  city  for  any  purpose, 
must  be  complete  in  form  for  final  passage  and  open 
to  public  inspection  for  at  least  one  week  before  it 
can  be  adopted.  The  board  must  print  and  distribute 
each  month  a  detailed  and  itemized  statement  of  all 
receipts  and  expenses  and  a  summary  statement  of 
its  proceedings  during  the  preceding  month,  and  at  the 
close  of  each  year  must  have  an  examination  by  com- 
petent accountants  of  all  the  city's  books  and  accounts 
and  print  and  distribute  the  result. 

The  Des  Moines  charter  also  provides  for  the  ap- 
pointment by  the  council  of  a  city  civil  service  board 
which,  under  the  direction  of  the  council,  makes  rules 
and  regulations  for  filling  places  in  the  subordinate 
administrative  service  upon  the  basis  of  merit. 

In  most  of  the  commission-governed  cities  no  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  introduce  different  methods 
for  the  nomination  and  election  of  the  commissioners 
from  those  in  use  for  other  elective  public  offices. 
But  in  some  of  them,  especially  within  the  last  two 
or  three  years,  there  has  been  incorporated  in  the  com- 
mission plan  itself  special  machinery  to  prevent  any 
influence  of  national  political  partisanship  (or,  for 
that  matter,  of  any  partisanship)  in  the  nomination 


APPLICABLE   TO   LARGE   CITIES?  175 

or  election  of  the  commissioners.  Des  Moines,  Iowa, 
Berkeley,  Gal.,  and  Grand  Junction,  Gol.,  will  serve  as 
examples. 

Such  in  its  main  outlines  is  the  commission  plan 
of  city  government  as  thus  far  developed.  How  far 
are  the  methods  and  machinery  thus  far  used  ade- 
quate to  the  larger  task  which  the  government  of  a 
city  of  several  hundred  thousand  inhabitants  presents? 
And  in  the  United  States  there  are  cities  whose  popu- 
lation is  above  a  million.  There  are  many  things  to 
be  taken  into  consideration.  Attention  is  here  given 
to  some  of  them. 

The  practicable  and  effective  methods  of  applying 
a  principle  on  a  large  scale  are  often,  and  very  prop- 
erly, different  from  those  that  seem  entirely  adequate 
within  a  restricted  field  of  operation.  So  different, 
indeed,  that  without  in  the  least  questioning  the  sound- 
ness of  the  principle,  the  problem  of  putting  it  into 
practical  effect  may  demand  a  widely,  perhaps  wholly, 
different  solution.  All  will  agree,  also,  that  defects 
of  method,  which  in  a  limited  field  do  little  harm 
and  may  well  be  disregarded  in  view  of  the  great 
practical  benefits  achieved,  may  produce  such  serious 
and  evil  results  when  repeated  on  a  large  scale  as  to 
obstruct,  if  not  altogether  defeat,  the  successful  appli- 
cation of  the  principle.  Moreover,  irrespective  of  all 
questions  of  physical  area  and  numbers  of  population, 
the  characters,  what  may  be  called  the  personalities, 
of  different  cities  are  by  no  means  uniform,  and  dif- 
ferent means  may  be  required  in  each  of  them  to 
accomplish   the   same   ultimate   purpose.      The   many 


176      CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

local  modifications  of  the  commission  plan  where  the 
cities  have  been  free  to  express  themselves,  as  they 
are  in  California  and  a  number  of  other  states,  illus- 
trate this  very  forcibly.  The  constant  modification  of 
and  variation  from  the  original  Galveston  type  made 
by  successive  state  legislatures  furnish  further  exam- 
ples. One  may  well  approve  heartily  the  underlying 
principles  of  commission  government  and  the  purpose 
it  seeks  to  accomplish,  and  yet  be  somewhat  hesitant 
in  accepting  "  city  government  by  commission  "  as  an 
infallible  cure  of  municipal  misgovernment. 

In  the  first  place,  the  commission  plan  has  been 
tested  for  too  short  a  time  and  on  too  small  a  scale 
and  under  too  favorable  circumstances  to  justify  one 
in  asserting  that  it  has  yet  provfed  itself  an  infallibly 
remedy.  In  the  next  place,  how  far  has  it  in  its  orig- 
inal form,  or  in  any  of  its  modifications,  answered 
certain  questions  which  must  be  satisfactorily  an- 
swered before  the  problem  of  city  government  in  the 
United  States  can  be  successfully  solved?  Here  are 
three. 

The  purpose  of  a  city  election  is  to  put  into  elec- 
tive city  office  representatives  of  the  prevailing  local 
opinion  as  to  the  local  public  policy.  What  electoral 
methods  are  proper  and  adequate  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  purpose?  Among  the  vital  matters 
involved  in  the  answer  to  this  question  are  the  quali- 
fications of  voters  who  may  participate ;  the  restric- 
tion of  the  exercise  of  the  elective  franchise  to  those 
who  are  duly  qualified ;  the  determination  of  the  poli- 
cies and  their  representatives  to  be  submitted  to  the 


APPLICABLE    TO    LARGE    CITIES? 


177 


voter's  choice  on  election  day;  the  form  and  kind  of 
ballots  to  be  used;  how  these  shall  be  furnished  the 
voter;  the  amount  of  expenditure  which  candidates 
for  nomination  or  election  (and  their  agents  and 
friends)  shall  be  permitted  to  make;  to  what  extent 
the  public  treasury  should  bear  the  expense  of  legiti- 
mate campaigning;  the  casting,  counting,  and  can- 
vassing of  the  ballots. 

What  methods  must  be  used  to  put  the  purely  ad- 
ministrative service  of  the  city  under  the  control  of 
experts  and  keep  the  personnel  of  the  service  free 
from  the  taint  of  spoils,  personal  favoritism,  and  the 
intrusion  of  partisan  politics  ? 

How  shall  the  city's  public  business,  both  on  its 
policy  determining  and  on  its  purely  administrative 
side,  be  transacted  under  conditions  that  insure  a 
knowledge  by  the  citizens  of  what  is  going  on,  so 
that  there  can  be  an  informed  public  opinion? 

The  initiative,  protest,  and  referendum,  so  com- 
monly incorporated  in  the  commission  plan,  are  evi- 
dence that  the  cities  who  have  adopted  it  distrust  their 
electoral  methods.    The  recall  is  still  further  evidence. 

The  putting  of  the  personnel  of  the  entire  civil 
service  of  the  city  under  the  untrammeled  control,  of 
a  board  of  five  is  a  continuance  of  a  system  which  has 
worked  great  havoc  in  the  past.  And  the  interposi- 
tion of  a  civil  service  board  between  the  commission 
and  the  city's  employees,  as  is  done  in  Des  Moines, 
appears  like  a  mere  simulacrum  of  a  genuine  merit 
system  in  the  city's  administrative  service.  The  Des 
Moines  council  appoints  and  removes  the  members  of 


178     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

the  civil  service  board  and  prescribes,  modifies,  and 
repeals  the  rules  and  regulations  for  the  conduct  of 
its  business. 

In  small  cities  there  may  be  sufficient  publicity  in 
the  conduct  of  its  business  if  the  sessions  of  its  coun- 
cil be  open,  the  votes  of  its  members  be  recorded,  the 
minutes  of  its  proceedings  and  reports  of  receipts  and 
expenditures  be  published  at  stated  intervals.  These 
are  old-time  methods,  however,  which  have  proved  of 
little  avail  in  many  a  city. 

As  illustrative  of  how  important  are  right  answers 
to  the  three  questions  that  have  just  been  asked,  how 
difficult  it  is  to  find  the  right  answer  and  how  unsat- 
isfactory to  some  careful  students  are  any  of  the 
answers  yet  devised  by  the  charter  makers  of  commis- 
sion-governed cities,  it  is  worth  while  to  consider  the 
recommendations  of  the  able  men  who,  after  two 
years  of  arduous  and  thorough  investigation,  both  of 
the  local  situation  and  the  results  of  experiments  in 
many  cities,  framed  Boston's  new  charter,  which  went 
into  effect  early  in  the  year  191  o. 

They  unanimously  rejected  the  commission  plan 
as  not  adapted  to  Boston's  conditions,  and  yet  unani- 
mously approved  the  soundness  of  its  underlying  prin- 
ciple and  the  purpose  it  would  accomplish.  Boston's 
new  charter  provides  for  a  council  of  nine  elected  at 
large,  three  each  year  for  a  term  of  three  years,  and 
a  mayor  elected  for  four  years,  but  subject  to  recall 
at  the  end  of  two  years,  if  the  majority  of  the  city's 
registered  voters  so  request  at  the  preceding  general 
election.    Like  Des  Moines,  Boston  has  the  short  bal- 


APPLICABLE    TO    LARGE    CITIES?  179 

lot  and  has  greatly  simplified  the  structural  plan  of  its 
city  government.  It  does  not  depend  upon  these  alone, 
however,  and  its  electoral  methods,  its  treatment  of 
the  civil  service,  and  its  provisions  for  affording  pub- 
licity to  the  conduct  of  the  city's  business  are  in 
strong  contrast  to  those  in  Des  Moines. 

Boston's  population  is  approximately  670,000.  In 
order  to  keep  city  elections  free  from  political  parti- 
sanship, it  not  only  separated  its  local  from  all  other 
elections,  but,  as  in  Des  Moines,  no  political  desig- 
nation or  mark  is  permitted  on  the  ballots.  Boston's 
previous  experience  with  primaries  of  several  sorts, 
including  direct  primaries,  caused  them  to  be  dis- 
carded altogether  in  making  nominations  for  mayor 
and  councilman,  but,  in  order  to  prevent  the  nomina- 
tions of  candidates  who  do  not  command  a  considerable 
popular  support,  its  new  charter  requires  that  a  candi- 
date in  order  to  have  his  name  appear  upon  the  election- 
day  ballot  must  file  a  petition  therefor  signed  by  five 
thousand  qualified  voters.  The  subordinate  admin- 
istrative service  of  Boston  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
a  state  civil  service  board,  but  not  even  this  was  con- 
sidered a  sufficient  protection  against  spoils  and  fa- 
voritism. By  the  new  charter  the  heads  of  the  admin- 
istrative departments  are  specifically  required  to  be 
experts  in  the  performance  of  their  official  duties. 
The  mayor  is  given  the  absolute  power  to  appoint 
them  without  any  restriction  as  to  residence,  but  sub- 
ject to  the  certification  of  their  expert  qualifications 
by  the  state  civil  service  board.  The  mayor  may  re- 
move at  his  pleasure,  but  the  new  appointee  is  subject 


i8o     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

to  the  same  certification.  In  order  to  secure  a  con- 
stant publicity  in  the  conduct  of  the  city's  business, 
a  state  board  of  inspection,  called  a  Finance  Commis- 
sion, is  created  whose  special  duty  is  to  find  out  and 
disseminate  information.  This  board  is  given  ample 
powers  and  has  at  its  command  a  standing  appropria- 
tion which  may  be  increased  but  not  diminished. 

To  sum  up:  There  is  an  authoritative  consensus 
of  opinion  that  two  important  and  essential  steps 
toward  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  city  govern- 
ment in  the  United  States  are  the  simplification  of  the 
structural  plan  of  the  government  and  the  reduction 
of  elective  city  officers  to  the  minimum  number  ade- 
quate to  perform  the  functions^ appropriate  to  elective 
officials  in  the  conduct  of  the  city's  public  business. 
There  is  a  constantly  strengthening  sentiment  that  the 
successful  solution  of  the  problem  of  city  government 
in  the  United  States  demands : 

(i)  That  the  voters  of  a  city  should  control  the 
policy  of  its  government  and  that  practicable  methods, 
adequate  to  accomplish  this  result,  must  be  provided ; 

(2)  That  the  personnel  of  its  purely  administra- 
tive service  should  be  selected,  appointed,  and  retained 
without  reference  to  their  political  opinions  or  affilia- 
tions and  solely  on  account  of  their  personal  merit; 

(3)  That  the  city's  voters  should  be  kept  fully  in- 
formed how  its  business  is  conducted; 

But  there  is  no  general  agreement  as  to  the  effective 

methods  of  accomplishing  any  of  these  three  purposes. 

There  are,   as   we  have  seen,   instructive  experi- 


APPLICABLE   TO   LARGE   CITIES? 


i«i 


ments  going  on  in  a  large  number  of  cities  varying 
in  area,  in  population,  and  in  local  conditions,  and 
varying  also  in  the  extent  of  local  governmental  power 
granted.  We  are  learning  many  valuable  lessons  from 
them  and  will  learn  much  more  from  the  results  of 
their  experiences.  It  is  altogether  probable  and  not  at 
all  undesirable  that  not  one  but  several  ways  will  be 
found  of  applying  successfully  these  basic  principles 
of  responsible  and  efficient  city  government.  A  great 
impetus  toward  the  accomplishment  of  this  result 
would  be  the  grant  by  the  state  to  the  citizens  of  a 
city,  within  proper  restrictions,  of  full  power  to  frame 
and  organize  its  government  and  to  adopt  their  own 
methods  of  making  those  charged  with  its  conduct 
accountable  to  them.  They  should  also  have  power 
to  repeal,  alter,  and  amend. 

Besides  the  great  advantages  resulting  from  sim- 
plicity of  structure  and  concentration  of  responsibility 
in  a  few  elective  officials,  the  experiments  already 
made  have  demonstrated  that  in  public,  as  in  private 
business,  the  determination  of  the  policy  to  be  ob- 
served in  its  conduct  will  cause  differences  of  opinion 
and  thus  arouse  partisanship.  Whether  the  city's  gov- 
erning board  be  small  or  large,  and  however  it  may 
be  elected,  there  will  be,  and  there  ought  to  be,  divis- 
ions among  the  city's  voters  who  will  align  themselves 
in  parties  to  support  or  oppose  this  or  that  side  on 
important  questions  of  city  policy.  The  nonpartisan- 
ship  so  much  lauded  and  desired  in  the  management 
of  the  public  affairs  of  a  city  should  be  merely  the 
exclusion  of  the  consideration  of  national  and  state 


i82     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


political  policy  from  the  decision  of  purely  local  issues. 
Local  partisanship  on  local  issues  is  both  proper  and 
necessary.  This  does  not  mean  that  there  is  need  of 
permanent  local  parties  with  practically  unchanging 
membership  from  year  to  year.  But  it  does  mean 
that,  as  local  issues  arise,  timely  local  parties  will  arise 
which  disappear  with  the  disappearance  of  the  issues, 
new  parties  with  a  new  membership  appearing  to  meet 
and  decide  the  new  issues. 

Table  Giving  Cities  Having  25,000  or  More  Inhabitants 
Which  Have  Adopted  the  Commission  Form  of  Govern- 
ment, AND  the  Year  in  Each  Case  When  It  Went  Into 
Operation. 


25,000-30,000. 

Austin,  Texas 1909 

Waco,  Texas 1909 

Colorado  Springs,  Colo..  .  1909 

Columbia,  S.  C 1910 

Muskogee,  Okia 1910 

Shreveport,  La.^ 

30,000-40,000. 

Galveston,  Texas 1901 

EI  Paso,  Texas 1907 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 1908 

Huntington,  W.  Va 1909 

San  Diego,  Cal 1909 

Lexington,  Ky.^ 

40,000-50,000. 

Berkeley,  Cal 1909 

Haverhill,  Mass 1909 

Topeka,  Kan 1910 

Sioux  City,  lowa^ 


50,000-75,000. 

Forf  Worth,  Texas 1907 

Wichita,  Kan 1909 


75,000-100,000. 

Houston,  Texas 1905 

Dallas,  Texas 1907 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 1908 

Lynn,  Mass 1909 

Kansas  City,  Kan 1910 

Tacoma,  Wash 1910 

Over  100,000. 

Memphis,  Tenn.^ 1910 

Oakland,  Cal.^ 

Spokane,  Wash.^ 


*  Not  yet  in  operaticn.  ^  Memphis  has  131,105  inhabitants. 


APPLICABLE    TO   LARGE   CITIES?  183 

Here  is  Mr.  Mixer's  argument  in  favor  of  apply- 
ing the  commission  form  of  government  to  cities : 

The  American  system  of  city  administration  by 
which  legislative  and  executive  functions  are  so  care- 
fully separated  is  thoroughly  discredited  by  a  century 
of  experience.  It  is  the  unique  experiment  in  gov- 
erning cities  which  has  failed,  while  the  English  and 
German  forms  in  which  the  legislative  and  executive 
functions  are  merged  in  a  single  body  have  proved  suc- 
cessful and  efficient.  This  American  plan,  if  it  may  be 
so  called,  is  beginning  also  to  be  discredited  as  applied 
to  the  government  of  the  states,  many  of  our  clearest 
thinkers  inclining  toward  the  English  and  Continental 
Government,  which  permit  the  executive  a  seat  in  the 
legislative  branch  and  adds  to  its  other  functions  that 
of  presenting  and  discussing  legislative  measures. 
The  original  federal  form  of  administration  for 
American  cities  was  used  not  because  it  was  thought 
adapted  to  this  form  of  administration,  but  simply 
because  our  fathers  knew  no  other  form. 

The  experiment  having  failed,  the  more  simple 
and  direct  method  of  city  government  employed  in 
German  and  English  cities  has  the  weight  of  decades 
of  successful  administration  to  recommend  it. 

The  commission  form  of  government  as  adopted 
in  the  United  States  is  an  adaptation  of  the  principle 
adopted  in  the  two  countries  above  referred  to,  and 
as  such  is,  of  course,  available  for  cities  of  any  size. 
That  the  city  of  Dresden,  Germany,  with  a  population 
of  582,000,  is  for  all  practical  purposes  governed  by 
13 


i84     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

the  Stadt-rat,  or  executive  committee  of  fifteen,  should 
be  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  city  of  Buffalo,  with 
425,000,  would  be  successfully  administered  by  a  com- 
mission of  five — the  only  practical  difference  between 
the  government  of  the  former  city  and  the  one  pro- 
posed for  the  latter  being  that  in  the  former  a  large 
popular  body  intervenes  between  the  direct  vote  of  the 
people  and  the  election  of  its  executive  council.  This 
large  popular  body,  however,  directly  elected  by  the 
people,  is  restricted  to  very  slight  functions — those  de- 
liberative only,  and  they  elect  the  executive  committee. 

English  cities  are  governed  by  a  single  parliament, 
and  this  single  body  combines  the  administrative  and 
legislative  functions  in  itself.  Its  departments  are 
administered  by  committees,  Avhich,  meeting  together, 
enact  such  small  legislative  business  as  the  city  may 
require. 

For  all  practical  purposes  this  is  in  theory  clearly  the 
basis  for  the  commission  government  as  adopted  in  the 
United  States,  and,  as  is  well  known,  forms  the  basis 
for  the  most  successful  city  governments  in  the  world. 

If  we  look  for  successful  governments  by  com- 
mission in  this  country,  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  them 
in  our  largest  cities.  The  city  of  Washington  is  gov- 
erned by  a  small  commission,  and  is  acknowledged  to 
be  one  of  our  best-governed  cities.  While  this  com- 
mission originated  in  an  entirely  different  way  from 
that  of  the  commission  form  of  government,  success- 
ful administration  under  its  rule  is  a  valid  answer  to 
the  argument  that  small  commissions  are  suited  only 
to  the  administration  of  small  cities. 


APPLICABLE    TO    LARGE    CITIES?  185 

The  city  of  New  York  under  its  present  charter, 
in  its  approximation  to  the  commission  form,  has 
more  nearly  succeeded  in  obtaining  good  government 
than  ever  before  in  its  history.  The  fact  that  the 
board  of  estimate  and  apportionment  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  governs  the  city  of  New  York,  is  the 
best  possible  evidence  that  the  fixing  of  responsibility 
on  the  small  commission  has  been  much  more  success- 
ful in  its  results  than  the  division  of  responsibility  in 
double  chambers  and  with  the  separation  of  legislative 
and  administrative  functions  under  the  old  system. 

The  commission  form  in  its  theory  and  practice 
becomes  a  government  by  experts  in  that  the  popularly 
elected  commission  is  made  up  of  administrators  who 
appoint  expert  subordinates  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  board.  They  are  permitted  to  choose  their  lieu- 
tenants from  among  the  best  professional  adminis- 
trators in  the  country,  and  in  so  doing  they  success- 
fully adopt  the  staff  system  of  the  German  military 
administration  which  has  been  so  highly  recommended 
for  large  business  in  this  country  by  efficiency  experts. 
Administration  by  experts  is  certainly  of  greater  value 
for  a  large  city  than  a  small  one,  as  the  large  city 
can  afiford  to  pay  the  higher  salary  to  attract  the  man 
of  widest  experience. 

If  the  commissions  now  existing  in  the  United 
States  under  other  systems  than  that  of  the  commis- 
sion form,  and,  as  above  cited,  such  as  those  of  Wash- 
ington, New  York,  etc.,  are  acknowledged  to  produce 
successful  results  then  the  system  as  applied  under  the 
commission  plan  of  popularly  elected  commissioners 


i86     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

is  only  open  to  the  question  of  the  quality  of  the  com- 
missioner so  obtained. 

As  to  the  quality  of  men  so  chosen  for  office,  ex- 
perience offers  the  best  reply.  The  report  of  the  com- 
mittee of  the  Illinois  Legislature  appointed  to  inves- 
tigate the  workings  of  the  commission  government  in 
Texas  cities,  reported  that  in  every  city  they  visited 
they  found  acting  on  the  governing  commissions  men 
of  the  highest  standing,  politically,  socially,  and  com- 
mercially, in  their  communities. 

The  commission  plan  of  government  as  so  far 
adopted  has  proved  its  case  in  that  it  has,  through  its 
inherent  efficiency  and  the  possibility  of  results  at- 
tracted the  best  and  highest  class  of  citizens  as  candi- 
dates for  its  positions. 

In  view  of  the  history  of  commission  government 
in  this  country  so  far  as  it  has  been  made,  the  burden 
of  proof  rests  with  those  who  attempt  to  show  that 
a  government  which  has  been  so  successful  in  cities 
of  moderate  size  will  not  be  successful  in  our  largest 
cities.  The  syllogism  they  are  required  to  prove  runs 
briefly  thus: 

Commission  government  is  acknowledged  to  have 
been  successful  in  cities  as  large  as  130,000  inhabi- 
tants, but 

It  has  not  been  tried  in  cities  containing  more  than 
130,000  inhabitants; 

Therefore,  it  will  not  be  successful  in  cities  of 
400,000  and  larger,  which  is  a  rcdiictio  ad  ahsurdiun. 

The  folly  of  the  attempt  is  shown  by  the  very 
statement  of  the  conclusion. 


CHAPTER    X 


THE    NEWPORT    PLAN 


Another  prominent  opponent  of  commission  gov- 
ernment of  American  cities  has  been  Rear  Admiral 
F.  E.  Chadwick,  U.S.N,  (retired),  who,  more  than  any 
one  other  man,  is  responsible  for  the  "  Newport  plan  of 
city  government."  At  the  Providence  meeting  of  the 
National  Municipal  League  (1907)  the  Admiral  pre- 
sented a  thoughtful  paper  on  the  subject,  which  he  has 
revised  and  brought  up  to  date.  It  is  herewith  re- 
produced : 

We  have  come  to  one  cheering  point  in  our  na- 
tional life;  that  is,  we  have  begun  to  recognize  that 
we  are  not  altogether  as  perfect  as  we  have  hereto- 
fore insisted  upon  our  being.  When  a  man  begins  to 
recognize  that  he  is  a  sinner,  there  is  chance  for  im- 
provement. Our  great  failure  in  municipal  govern- 
ment is  too  patent  to  be  denied.  Such  a  failure,  so 
long  as  others  succeed,  must  have  some  special  reason. 
Life  among  people  of  the  same  race  character  as  those 
of  Germany,  England,  and  the  United  States  must 
run  upon  the  same  basic  lines.  Why  then  have  we 
so  signally  failed  in  city  government  while  the  others 
have  been  comparatively  so  successful? 

187 


i88     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

The  first  reason,  as  it  appears  to  me,  is  in  the  fatal 
idea  that  we  can  start  anew  in  everything,  dismissing 
the  great  fact  of  the  sohdarity  of  humanity,  particu- 
larly that  of  kindred  races.  "  The  thing  that  hath 
been,  it  is  that  which  shall  be,"  is  as  true  of  human 
nature  as  ever.  We  have  thought  ourselves  equal  to 
evolving  something  new  in  everything  we  touched. 
It  is  worth  while  to  examine  this  a  little  even  at  the 
risk  of  wounding  somewhat  our  self-esteem.  We  sup- 
pose, for  instance,  that  we  lead  and  have  led  the  world 
in  invention.  There  could  hardly  be  a  greater  error 
of  fact,  for  we  have  followed  in  all  the  world-moving 
inventions,  we  have  not  led. 

Let  us  take,  for  example,  transportation,  the  great- 
est business  after  agriculture.  How  many  recognize 
that  we  have  never  initiated  a  step  in  this?  That  not 
one  of  the  great  changes  in  marine  engineering,  for 
instance,  have  come  from  us ;  such  as  the  change  from 
paddle  to  screw,  from  screw  to  double  screw,  from 
wood  to  iron,  from  iron  to  steel  in  construction,  from 
the  simple  engine  to  the  compound,  from  the  com- 
pound to  the  multiple  expansion,  and  from  multiple 
expansion  in  the  reciprocating  engine  to  the  turbine? 
Nor  did  we  invent  the  locomotive  or  the  railway,  the 
electric  motor  or  the  gas  engine.  It  was  for  a  Scot, 
born  and  reared  to  manhood  before  he  came  to  us, 
to  invent  the  telephone,  for  a  Dane,  Oersted,  to  strike 
upon  the  principle  of  the  telegraph,  and  for  an  Italian 
to  invent  wireless  telegraphy.  Nor  have  we  been  any- 
thing but  followers  in  the  details  of  that  great  factor 
of  modern  progress — steel. 


THE   NEWPORT   PLAN  189 

We  cannot  claim  Bessemer,  Siemens,  or  Martin 
as  ours,  nor  were  we  overapt  to  follow  them,  as  it 
took  us  a  long  time  before  we  got  fairly  started  in 
the  adoption  of  their  processes.  If  we  turn  to  the  im- 
portant question  of  health  and  disease,  it  was  for  a 
Frenchman,  Pasteur,  to  teach  the  world  both  the  cause 
of  disease  and  the  cure.  These  facts,  and  they  are 
facts,  are  worthy  of  our  sober  thought.  They  show 
us  that  Europeans  do  some  great  things  as  well  as 
ourselves.  We  have  done  great  things  in  a  material 
way,  but  the  way  has,  as  a  rule,  been  blazed  for  us 
by  those  whom  we  usually  speak  of  as  our  inferiors 
in  inception.  Our  ingenuity  has  run  in  the  minor 
grooves;  for  the  cotton  gin,  the  sewing  machine,  the 
reaper,  important  as  they  have  been  in  easing  life, 
cannot  rank  with  the  steam  engine,  the  railway,  the 
electric  motor  as  world  factors. 

Now,  while  we  have  been  so  ready  to  adopt  a  good 
process  in  steel,  to  adopt  railways,  turbines,  the  double 
screw,  the  automobile,  and  all  the  other  mechanical 
advances  of  Europe,  why  have  we  been  so  unwilling 
to  adopt  certain  administrative  methods  which  have 
worked  so  well  in  Europe  and  would  work  as  well 
here? 

I  believe  that  we  began  wrong  in  our  city  govern- 
ments by  reversing  a  fundamental  principle  of  good 
administration,  which  is  the  al)solute  separation  of 
the  appropriating  and  spending  powers.  The  usual 
American  city  made  its  charter  a  half  copy  of  our 
state  and  federal  legislative  and  administrative  sys- 
tems, and  set  up  a  body  which  not  only  made  the 


190 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


appropriation  but  did  the  spending.  The  result  was  a 
foregone  conclusion.  Nothing  could  come  of  such  a 
system  but  that  by  which  the  moral  sense  of  the  coun- 
try had  been  staggered.  This  union  of  powers  which 
ought  always  be  kept  separate  has  in  itself  been  a 
fatal  thing.  It  was  one  of  the  signs  of  our  loss  of 
political  faculty. 

Along  with  this  has  been  the  ephemeral  status  of 
our  city  administrators.  The  administration  of  a 
great  city  dififers  little  in  its  burdens  and  difficulties 
from  that  of  a  nationality.  New  York,  for  instance, 
spends  more  money  in  its  administration  than  a  nation. 
To  pick  up  a  head  administrator  at  haphazard  to  serve 
a  year  or  two  and  then  try  another,  is  emphatically 
and  manifestly  not  good  sense,  "^he  term  is  so  short 
for  all  the  persons,  technical  and  others,  that  naturally 
the  first  thing  done  by  the  man  elected  by  a  partisan 
vote  is  to  establish  a  body  of  political  followers  by 
whose  help  he  may  stay  in  power.  This  has  plunged 
our  city  governments  into  the  whirlpool  of  partisan 
politics  and  has  naturally  produced  the  boss. 

If  we  are  serious  seekers  after  a  sound  system  of 
handling  municipal  affairs,  we  start  with  it  as  a  purely 
business  proposition.  Municipal  affairs  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  tariff,  with  interstate  commerce,  with 
the  federal  government.  Our  question  is  simply  get- 
ting our  money's  worth  of  comfort  and  security  within 
our  corporate  limits.  One  country  has  done  this — 
Germany.  Why  not  ours?  That  we  have  lagged  be- 
hind Germany  in  the  race  of  civilization  cannot  be 
questioned.     It  is  shown  in  every  phase  of  the  city; 


THE   NEWPORT   PLAN 


191 


in  convenience  of  plan,  in  parks,  in  the  low  cost  and 
maintenance  of  what  we  have  come  to  call  public  utili- 
ties, in  the  absence  of  unsightly  districts  which  in  our 
own  towns  are  often  of  such  melancholy  dilapidation 
and  squalor.  We  have  been  particularly  slow  in  that 
general  beautification  which  does  so  much  to  create 
civic  pride,  and  is  of  as  much  educational  value  as  any- 
thing done  in  the  public  school;  I  am  much  inclined 
to  place  it  in  the  first  rank  of  educational  values.  The 
beauty  of  Athens,  and  the  splendors  of  Rome  and  of 
the  Italian  renaissance  are  simply  the  outcome  of  an 
intense  civic  spirit  and  civic  pride. 

Returning  to  Germany,  we  have  but  to  compare 
Hamburg,  Dresden,  Berlin,  Frankfurt,  or  Wiesbaden 
with  anything  we  have,  except  Washington,  to  show 
our  failure.  This  last,  be  it  said,  is  the  best  designed 
city  in  the  world,  both  for  beauty  and  convenience ;  a 
monument  should  be  erected  to  the  Frenchman,  L'En- 
fant,  who  designed  it.  But  can  anyone  say  why  no 
one  of  our  cities  has  ever  copied  this  most  admirable 
plan  instead  of  using  the  senseless  rectangular  system, 
which  afifords  no  chance  for  picturesque  treatment  and 
always  obliges  one  to  take  the  two  sides  of  a  right 
triangle  instead  of  the  short  cut  of  the  hypotenuse? 

And  in  every  way,  as  a  rule,  we  maltreat  what  we 
have.  New  York  has  occupied  many  of  its  best  ave- 
nues with  a  most  unsightly  elevated  railway.  Berlin 
builds  one,  but  she  buys  her  right  of  way  and  builds 
a  handsome  structure  of  brick  and  stone,  the  arches 
of  which  serve  as"  stores.  We  are  but  beginners  to 
put  up  sightly  railway  stations;  the  magnificent  sta- 


192 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


tion    at    Frankfurt    was    built    some    twenty    years 
since. 

How  has  Germany  accomplished  all  this  conve- 
nience of  arrangement,  beauty  of  streets,  parks,  and 
buildings  and  made  it  pay?  It  is  done  through  a  large 
council  of  representative  citizens,  which  council  is  the 
city  government,  and  which  looks  the  country  o\er 
for  a  good  man  as  chief  administrator  exactly  as  a 
large  business  firm  looks  up  a  good  man  as  general 
manager.  They  take  him  where  they  can  find  him 
and  hire  him  for  a  considerable  period,  at  what  is, 
for  Germany,  a  very  large  salary.  If  he  makes  good 
he  is  retained  in  what  practically  becomes  a  life  job. 
Thus  the  mayor  of  the  rich  and  important  city  of 
Frankfurt  was  first  an  assistant  piayor  at  Altona,  near 
Hamburg,  then  assistant  at  Berlin,  whence  he  was 
called  to  Frankfurt  as  mayor.  The  salaries  of  the 
German  mayors  are,  as  mentioned,  large  because  the 
responsibility  and  work  are  large.  Along  with  the 
mayor  are  associated  an  assistant  mayor  and  the  vari- 
ous technical  officials,  all  of  whom  are  selected  by  the 
council  in  the  same  way  as  the  mayor.  The  council 
is  always  a  body  very  considerable  in  numbers.  In 
Berlin  there  are  one  hundred  and  forty-four  mem- 
bers. Associated  with  it  are  numerous  committees 
on  parks,  education,  etc.,  the  members  of  which  serve 
for  the  honor  of  taking  part  in  their  public  affairs.  I 
appeal  to  all  of  you,  is  there  not  shown  in  this  a 
greater  common  sense  than  in  our  system,  as  a  usual 
rule,  of  "  hand-me-down "  officials,  without  expe- 
rience,  and   who  receive  next  to  nothing   for  what 


THE   NEWPORT   PLAN  193 

should  be  one  of  the  heaviest  responsibihties  a  man 
can  undertake?  How  can  we  expect  our  ablest  men, 
and  it  is  our  ablest  men  that  are  needed,  to  drop  their 
own  affairs  for  a  year  or  two  and  on  a  pittance  and 
with  no  expectation  of  permanency,  take  over  such 
work?  I  do  not  think  that  I  am  overstepping  the 
bounds  when  I  say  that  the  headship  of  no  corporation, 
or  state,  or  even  the  headship  of  the  United  States 
requires  greater  general  ability,  force  of  character,  or 
knowledge  of  administration  than  the  head  of  admin- 
istration of  a  great  city  like  New  York  or  Berlin. 
The  latter,  we  know,  to  be  well  administered,  the  for- 
mer— well,  let  us  say,  less  so.  The  whole  difference 
is  in  the  systems.  Apply  the  Berlin  system  to  New 
York,  and  you  will  get  Berlin  results. 

I  know  that  what  I  have  said  is  not  consoling  to 
our  pride.  Some  may  even  say  that  it  is  not  patriotic, 
but  I  say  that  patriotism  is  best  which  looks  our  short- 
comings in  the  face  and  tries  to  correct  them. 

Coming  to  our  Newport  plan,  I  would  say  that  it 
is  the  outcome  of  the  efforts  of  a  committee  of  twenty- 
seven  men  who  were  requested  by  our  Municipal  Asso- 
ciation, a  nonpartisan  body  organized  for  the  better- 
ment of  city  conditions,  to  draft  a  new  charter.  In 
casting  about  for  information,  we  came  across  a  sug- 
gestion of  Alfred  D.  Chandler,  of  Brookline,  who  has 
written  a  pamphlet  advocating  what  he  called  a  lim- 
ited town  meeting,  a  large  elective  body  which  should 
have  the  powers  of  the  full  town  meeting.  We 
adopted  and  built  upon  the  idea.  A  charter  was 
drafted  calling  for  a  representative  council  in  which 


194     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

should  be  vested  the  government  and  control  of  all 
fiscal,  prudential,  and  municipal  affairs.  The  council 
in  a  few  words  was  to  have  the  powers  of  the  New 
England  town  meeting.  The  number  was  fixed  at 
195,  the  term  of  office  to  be  three  years,  one  third  of 
the  council  to  be  renewed  each  year. 

It  was  desired  to  put  about  200  in  the  council  as 
being  a  number  not  too  large  for  discussion,  but 
large  enough  to  prevent  combines  and  trades.  The 
particular  number  was  the  outcome  of  the  fact  that 
there  were  five  wards.  Thirty-nine  were  thus  to  be 
from  each  ward,  13  of  whom  were  to  be  elected 
each  year.  We  have  in  the  whole  city,  which  I  should 
say  numbers  but  25,000,  65  newly  elected  councilmen 
each  year. 

The  charter  also  called  for  a  mayor  and  five  alder- 
men, one  alderman  from  each  ward.  These  six  were 
to  constitute  the  board  of  aldermen  and  were  to  have 
the  powers  of  selectmen  of  a  Rhode  Island  town.  The 
powers  of  the  representative  council  are  thus  purely 
legislative;  the  powers  of  the  board  of  aldermen 
purely  executive.  There  is  thus  a  clear-cut  line  be- 
tween the  appropriating  and  spending  bodies. 

The  representative  council  makes  ordinances,  elects 
the  city  officials,  such  as  the  city  treasurer,  city  clerk, 
judge  of  probate,  and  all  other  city  or  municipal  of- 
ficers provided  for  by  law,  or  such  as  may  be  needed 
or  proper  to  carry  into  execution  the  powers  of  the 
city.  It  fixes  salaries  and  may  remove  for  misconduct 
any  officer  not  elected  by  the  people. 

A  vote  in  favor  of  any  proposition  requiring  the 


THE    NEWPORT   PLAN 


195 


expenditure  of  $10,000  in  addition  to  the  regular  ap- 
propriations cannot  become  operative  for  seven  days. 
If  within  that  time  a  petition  be  filed  from  ten  quali- 
fied electors  from  each  ward,  in  addition  to  at  least  one 
hundred  qualified  electors  of  the  city,  or  one  hundred 
and  fifty  in  all,  such  proposition  must  be  submitted  to 
the  qualified  electors  of  the  city  within  thirty  days  of 
the  filing  'of  the  petition.  Upon  petition  of  one  hun- 
dred qualified  electors  any  proposition  for  the  expen- 
diture of  a  sum  exceeding  $10,000  may  be  submitted 
to  the  representative  council,  and  must  be  considered 
at  its  next  meeting.  If  such  proposition  be  disap- 
proved by  the  representative  council,  a  petition  may  be 
filed  within  seven  days  signed  by  at  least  twenty 
qualified  electors  from  each  ward  in  addition  to  at 
least  two  hundred  qualified  electors  of  the  city,  asking 
that  such  proposition  be  submitted  to  the  qualified 
electors  of  the  city,  which  must  be  done  within  thirty 
days  thereafter. 

I  would  here  define  a  qualified  elector :  under  the 
constitution  of  Rhode  Island,  no  one  can  vote  for  a 
member  of  a  city  council  or  for  a  proposition  to  ex- 
pend money  or  levy  a  tax,  who  does  not  himself  pay 
tax  upon  at  least  $134  value  of  property.  The  general 
electorate  thus  votes  for  the  mayor  and  for  the  school 
board,  but  not  for  aldermen  or  members  of  the  execu- 
tive council. 

No  sum  appropriated  for  a  specific  purpose  shall 
be  expended  for  any  other  purpose  unless  by  authority 
of  the  representative  council.  No  expenditure  shall 
be  made  or  liability  incurred  until  an  appropriation 


196     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

shall  be  made  by  the  council  to  meet  such  expenditure 
or  liability. 

The  mayor  has  power  to  investigate  all  depart- 
ments, and  may  suspend  any  city  officer  for  sufficient 
cause.  The  cause  must  be  brought  before  the  board 
of  aldermen  in  five  days ;  in  case  the  board  sustain  the 
charge,  the  office  becomes  vacant,  subject,  however, 
to  an  appeal  within  ten  days  to  the  repi'esentative 
council  which  has  power  to  finally  determine  the 
matter. 

The  mayor  and  aldermen  may  not  be  interested  in 
any  contract,  nor  shall  any  one  of  them  vote  upon  a 
contract  between  the  city  and  a  corporation  in  which 
he  is  a  stockholder. 

The  control  of  the  police  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
mayor,  with  the  consent  of  the  board  of  aldermen, 
and  subject  to  the  direction  of  the  representative 
council. 

Nominations  are  made  by  filing  papers  with  the 
city  clerk  at  least  twelve  days  before  the  election, 
which  is  held  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  December,  sepa- 
rate from  any  state  or  national  election.  The  candi- 
dates must  sign  an  acceptance  of  the  nomination  on 
the  nomination  paper.  It  requires  at  least  thirty  ward 
names  on  the  paper  of  a  candidate  for  the  represent- 
ative council,  one  hundred  for  an  alderman,  and  two 
hundred  and  fifty  for  mayor.  No  one  can  sign  papers 
for  a  greater  number  of  candidates  than  he  has  a  right 
to  vote  for. 

Nothing  may  be  printed  or  written  on  a  ballot  ex- 
cept the  name  of  the  candidate,  his  residence,  the  office 


THE   NEWPORT   PLAN 


197 


for  which  he  is  nominated,  and  such  other  nonpolitical 
facts  as  the  laws  of  the  state  may  require. 

A  particular  feature  of  the  charter  taken  from  the 
procedure  of  the  town  of  Brookline  is  the  appointment 
by  the  chairman  of  the  council,  who  is  elected  at  the 
first  meeting  of  the  new  council  on  the  first  Monday 
in  January,  of  a  committee  of  twenty-five.  This  com- 
mittee is  charged  with  the  formulation  of  the  budget, 
and  the  report  must  be  printed  and  distributed  to  the 
voters  qualified  to  vote  on  the  expenditure  of  money 
at  least  seven  days  before  the  adjourned  meeting  called 
to  consider  the  budget. 

Finally,  any  taxpayer,  man  or  woman,  resident  or 
nonresident,  may  appear  upon  the  floor  and  address 
the  council,  subject  to  the  rules,  upon  any  proposition 
before  it. 

The  system  has  worked  distinctly  w'ell.  For  one 
thing,  it  has  been  educational  in  a  very  high  degree. 
Everyone  knows  what  is  going  on.  There  is  much, 
and  generally  very  intelligent,  discussion  of  the  mat- 
ters before  the  council.  There  have  been  no  difficul- 
ties on  account  of  the  size  of  the  body.  It  is  like 
any  other  legislative  assembly,  and  is  as  well  ordered 
and  \vell  conducted,  and  as  dignified  in  procedure, 
as  any  legislative  assembly  of  which  I  know. 

To  illustrate  the  interest  which  is  taken  in  matters 
before  the  council,  a  local  paper  devoted  two  columns 
to  a  report  of  the  proceedings  of  the  preceding  meeting, 
which  was  a  most  important  one.  It  has  been  a  custom 
in  the  city  for  the  political  parties  to  step  up  just  before 
election  and  pay  taxes  for  the  people  who  came  under 


198     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

the  $134  clause,  without  their  knowledge.  This  put 
them  on  the  voting  lists.  These  men  did  not  care  to 
pay  the  small  sum  of  $2.70  which  was  necessary.  Re- 
cently one  of  the  members  looked  into  the  subject  and 
brought  out  the  details  in  a  powerful  speech.  The 
facts  he  gathered  included  a  long  list  of  the  men 
whose  names  had  been  put  before  the  council  to  have 
their  taxes  remitted,  as  had  been  usual  heretofore. 
The  matter  received  very  careful  attention  and  I  do 
not  think  the  practice  will  ever  occur  again.  There 
is  always  a  full  report  of  the  proceedings  in  the  news- 
papers, and  in  this  particular  case  there  was  an  editorial 
on  the  subject  as  well.  There  is  no  important  matter 
during  the  four  years  in  which  the  charter  has  been 
in  operation  on  which  the  representative  council  has 
gone  wrong.  It  has  always  voted  straight  in  all  seri- 
ous matters.  The  system  has  gradually  worked  its 
way  even  among  those  who  were  at  first  opposed  to 
it.  Many  men  who  were  its  vigorous  opponents  have 
mentioned  to  me  their  complete  change  of  opinion. 
The  only  disgruntled  persons  are  some  of  the  ma- 
chine politicians  who  feel  that  they  can  no  longer 
control  city  politics  for  partisan  purposes.  There 
has  been  no  hint  of  lining  up  in  the  council  on  party 
lines. 

In  its  report  to  the  representative  council  the  com- 
mittee of  twenty-five  says :  "  The  amount  estimated  to 
be  raised  by  taxation  for  the  year  1909  was  $642,- 
639.40,  and  the  amount  estimated  to  be  raised  by  tax- 
ation for  1910  is  $563,369.69,  or  $79,269.71  less  than 
last  year.    The  city  is  steadily  decreasing  its  debt,  and 


THE   NEWPORT   PLAN 


199 


at  the  same  time  making  it  possible,  if  thought  best, 
to  lower  the  tax  rate."  ^ 

It  is  well,  perhaps,  to  study  the  city's  finances  a 
little  to  see,  not  if  this  statement  is  true,  but  how  such 
a  desirable  state  of  affairs  has  been  brought  about. 
We  have  only  to  go  back  to  the  last  few  years  under 
the  old  charter  to  find  a  very  much  less  desirable  con- 
dition. Then,  with  the  city  council  having  both  the 
appropriating  and  the  expending  authority,  there  was 
from  year  to  year  a  piling  up  of  the  floating  debt  from 
repeated  overdraughts  which  it  seemed  impossible  to 
prevent.  Under  the  new  charter,  with  the  represent- 
ative council  appropriating  the  money  and  the  alder- 
men spending  only  what  was  given  them,  there  was 
at  once  a  change.  Not  only  has  there  been  no  increase 
in  the  floating  debt  from  year  to  year,  but  the  old 
debt  has  been  quite  largely  wiped  out,  important  new 
work  has  been  done  and  paid  for,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
increasing  expenditures  for  current  expenses,  there 
has  been  at  the  end  of  each  year  a  constantly  enlarged 
unexpended  balance  with  which  to  begin  the  new  year 
and  to  make  the  annual  budget  less  difficult  to  handle; 
and  not  only  this,  but  the  credit  of  the  city  is  im- 
pro\'ed  and  money  can  be  obtained  on  more  advanta- 
geous terms  for  an  emergency,  and,  above  all,  the  sink- 
ing funds  for  the  payment  of  the  bonded  indebtedness- 
of  the  city  have  been  reinvested  to  excellent  advantage 
by  the  sinking  fund  commissioners  and  the  payment  of 
the  bonds  has  been  made  more  and  more  secure. 


'  See  Newport  Daily  News,  March  10,  1910. 
14 


200     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

Let  us  go  into  details  regarding  the  debt  of  the 
city.  In  1907,  when  the  new  charter  went  into  effect, 
the  representative  council  found  the  fund  saddled  with 
an  accumulated  overdraught  of  $150,000.  Provision 
was  made  for  the  gradual  extinction  of  this  by  the 
issue  of  municipal  notes,  $30,000  to  be  paid  in  one 
year,  $30,000  in  two  years,  and  $90,000  by  means  of 
a  series  of  notes  of  $10,000  each,  to  be  paid  in  one, 
two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  seven,  eight,  and  nine  years. 
In  1908  the  representative  council  authorized  the  lay- 
ing of  a  new  pavement  on  Thames  Street  (which  is 
one  of  our  longest  and  most  important  streets),  and 
it  was  decided  not  to  issue  long-term  bonds  for  its 
payment,  as  had  been  the  custom  with  former  perma- 
nent improvements,  but  to  pay  ^for  it  in  three  years, 
a  portion  out  of  the  regular  appropriation  for  the 
year,  and  the  balance  by  the  issue  of  notes  becoming 
due  in  one  and  two  years.  The  city  thus  in  1908  had 
an  unusual  indebtedness  of  $210,000,  and  in  that  year 
paid  one  of  the  $30,000  notes,  the  $10,000  expiring 
that  year,  and  the  $25,000  on  the  Thames  Street  pave- 
ment, the  total  indebtedness  being  reduced  by  $65,000 
to  $145,000.  In  1909  there  was  also  a  payment  of 
$30,000,  and  $10,000  on  the  city's  notes,  and  $25,000 
additional  was  paid  on  the  Thames  Street  pavement, 
leaving  an  indebtedness  of  $80,200.  This  year  it  is 
proposed  to  pay  off  the  balance,  $10,200,  of  the  $60,- 
200  for  the  pavement,  and  another  $10,000  on  the  an- 
nual notes,  leaving  only  $60,000  to  be  paid,  $10,000 
in  each  year  for  the  next  six  years.  In  other  words, 
the  city  will  have  paid  in  three  years  the  entire  cost  of 


THE    NEWPORT    PLAN 


20I 


the  Thames  Street  pavement,  and  reduced  the  accu- 
mulated floating  indebtedness  of  1907  from  $i50,cxx) 
to  $60,000. 

Not  only  has  this  large  indebtedness  been  paid,  but 
at  the  end  of  each  year  there  has  been  an  increasing 
balance  in  the  treasury.  In  January,  1908,  the  city 
treasurer  reported  a  balance  of  $39,230.71  on  his 
books,  but  practically  all  this  was  charged  against  the 
appropriation  for  the  Mumford  school,  and  was  not 
an  actual  cash  balance.  In  January,  1909,  the  report 
showed  a  balance  of  $22,690.12,  and  this  year  there 
was  a  balance  of  $69,136.66,  with  no  charges  running 
over  from  last  year  against  it.  With  this  balance  and 
the  amounts  paid,  or  to  be  paid,  on  overdue  taxes, 
the  city  will  be  able  to  meet  current  expenses  without 
resorting  to  the  hiring  of  money,  probably  until  the 
middle  of  April,  thereby  saving  a  considerable  amount 
of  interest  on  borrowed  funds. 

The  saving  in  the  city's  money  is  also  shown  in 
the  decreasing  interest  charges.  In  1907  the  city  paid 
in  interest  on  its  notes  $10,257,  and  in  1908,  $13,- 
095.05.  In  1909  the  committee  of  twenty-five  esti- 
mated the  amount  to  be  paid  in  interest  during  the 
year  at  $11,000,  but  only  $7,998  was  actually  paid. 
For  this  year  the  committee  estimates  that  interest 
charges  at  $7,525,  and  with  money  in  the  treasury  for 
three  months  at  least,  without  borrowing,  there  is  a 
possibility  of  even  this  small  amount  being  eliminated. 

Last  year  the  total  appropriations  were  $704,- 
326.23,  and  the  amount  to  be  raised  by  taxes  was 
$642,659.40.     The  total  tax  assessed  was  $650,442. 


202      CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

This  year  the  proposed  total  appropriation  amounts 
to  $666,676.84,  and  with  the  larger  cash  balance  in 
the  treasury,  and  the  estimated  income  from  other 
sources,  there  must  be  raised  by  taxation,  only  $563,- 
396.69,  or  $79,269.71  less  than  in  1909.  On  last  year's 
valuation,  only  $563,369.69,  or  $79,269.71,  $11.50  on 
each  $1,000,  would  give  more  than  the  required 
amount,  but  a  $12  rate  would  leave  a  better  margin 
of  safety,  and  this  does  not  consider  at  all  any  increase 
in  valuations  which  it  is  expected  the  assessors  will 
find. 

I  would  mention  that  only  two  meetings  of  our 
council  are  absolutely  necessary  in  the  year;  the  first 
when  the  council  organizes,  elects  the  chairman  and 
city  officers;  the  second  when  ft:  meets  to  pass  the 
budget  reported  by  the  Committee  of  Twenty-five 
appointed  at  the  first  meeting.  Other  meetings  may 
be,  and  are,  called.  I  think  the  highest  number  in 
any  year  has  been  six.  I  could  also  add  that  it  has 
never  been  without  a  quorum  even  at  first  roll  call. 
At  the  meeting  of  the  new  council  on  the  first  Monday 
of  last  January,  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  charter's 
working,  we  had  present  191  of  the  195  members. 
All  four  of  those  absent  were  ill.  This  shows  that 
there  is  no  want  of  public  spirit.  I  would  also  say 
that  every  class  in  the  city  is  represented,  from  mil- 
lionaires, of  whom  there  are  at  least  three,  to  labor- 
ers. It  is  a  body  not  only  representative  in  name, 
but  in  fact.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  I  think  the 
Newport  charter  is  perfect  by  any  means.  For  one 
thing,   there  are  too  many  aldermen.     The  present 


THE    NEWPORT   PLAN 


203 


number  was  a  concession  to  prejudice.  It  is  difficult 
to  change  from  old-established  ways  all  at  once.  In 
fact,  as  you  may  have  gathered  from  what  I  have  said, 

I  would  do  away  with  aldermen  entirely,  and  elect  a 
mayor  for  a  long  term.  My  real  preference  would  be 
to  go  at  once  to  the  German  system,  if  such  a  thing 
should  be  possible. 

As  a  great  city  like  Boston  or  New  York  is  a  state 
within  a  state,  I  would  make  the  selection  of  a  mayor 
for  such  cities  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  governor 
of  the  state,  as  is  the  selection  of  the  mayor  of  Berlin 
or  the  mayor  of  Frankfurt  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  Emperor,  to  whom  three  names  are  submitted. 
Such  an  approval  is  worth  thinking  about.  There 
is  in  it  a  quality  of  safety  against  a  bad  or  poor 
selection. 

In  any  case  a  mayor  cannot  go  far  astray  when 
the  purse  strings  are  rigidly  held  by  a  council  large 
enough  to  assure  independence  of  action.  With  us 
the  mayor  and  board  of  aldermen  must  attend  the  meet- 
ings of  the  representative  council  to  answer"  questions 
or  make  explanations.  They  may  send  in  suggestions, 
but  they  have  no  \ote.  The  character  of  their  duty  is 
executive  only.  Their  manner  of  performance  can 
be  questioned  in  the  council  at  any  time. 

I  hardly  need  say  that  I  am  opposed  to  any  such 
system  as  that  of  Galveston,  or  to  call  it  by  its  broader 
name,  the  commission  system.  It  is  but  another 
name  for  despotism.  Louis  XIV  was  a  commissioner 
for  executing  the  duties  of  governing  France.     Philip 

II  was  the  same  in  Spain.     The  Decemvirs  and  Tri- 


204     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

umvirs  of  Rome  were  but  the  same  sort  of  thing,  as 
were  also  the  Directory  in  France.  They  all  came  to 
the  same  end.  Says  Madison,  in  No.  XL\^1I  of  the 
Federalist:  "  The  accumulation  of  all  powers,  legis- 
lative and  judiciary,  in  the  same  hands,  whether  of 
one,  a  few,  or  many,  and  whether  hereditary,  self-ap- 
pointed, or  elective,  may  justly  be  pronounced  the  very 
definition  of  tyranny."  Mr.  Justice  Story  said: 
"  Whenever  these  departments  are  all  vested  in  one 
person  or  body  of  men,  the  government  is  in  fact 
a  despotism,  by  whatever  name  it  may  be  called, 
whether  a  monarchy,  an  aristrocracy,  or  a  democ- 
racy." 

It  is  incomprehensible  to  me  that  Americans  should 
so  quickly  turn  from  their  principles  to  such  a  system, 
condemned  through  more  than  two  thousand  years 
of  experience.  It  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  we  have  lost  our  political  aptitude,  have  be- 
come illogical,  emotional,  light-minded.  For  it  is  an 
abnegation  of  every  principle  upon  which  our  govern- 
ment is  founded.  If  the  commission  system  is  right, 
then  men  who  formed  our  constitution  were  wrong. 
We  have  apparently  come  to  a  parting  of  the  ways. 
If  the  country  in  general  shall  come  to  a  commission 
system  for  cities,  it  will  be  but  a  step,  and  we  shall 
have  the  same  for  the  state.  It  is  the  logical  sequence 
and  is  worth  thinking  over. 

It  is  the  habit  of  those  who  favor  a  commission 
to  say  that  it  has  worked  well.  I  would  answer  that  it 
has  been  in  operation  in  Des  Moines,  for  instance,  one 
of  the  first  northern  towns  to  adopt  the  system,  but 


THE    NEWPORT    PLAN 


205 


about  two  ^  years,  and  I  hear  they  are  having  their 
troubles.  Haverhill  has  had  it  about  a  year.  Is  the 
experience  of  such  a  period  a  test  ?  Let  us  wait  a  bit 
and  see. 

Of  course,  autocratic  government  is  the  best  of 
governments  if  you  can  get  an  all-wise  autocrat  in 
every  case.  It  is  the  government  of  that  almighty 
power  which  we  call  nature.  But  where  is  the  man 
who  is  as  wise  as  this  power;  and  if  he  did  exist, 
where  is  the  American  city  electorate  which  would 
elect  him  ?  In  any  case,  we  see  in  Galveston  an  excel- 
lent and  satisfactory  man  displaced  for  an  untried 
man.  Had  the  system  had  in  it  the  true  element  of 
right  and  good,  it  would  have  kept  its  good  and  tried 
man,  and  not  have  turned  to  the  untried  man  and 
"  shrewd  politician." 

Many  refer  to  Washington  as  an  example  of  the 
commission  form.  It  has  nothing  in  common  with  it 
whatever,  except  the  name.  The  government  of 
Washington  is  Congress,  which  makes  all  the  appro- 
priations and  all  the  more  important  laws.  The 
Washington  commissioners,  as  you  will  find  said  in 
the  last  edition  of  the  "  American  Encyclopedia," 
cannot  buy  a  box  of  matches  without  the  action  of 
Congress.  In  fact  the  government  of  Washington 
would  be  nearly  that  of  Newport  if  Congress  were 
elected  by  the  citizens  of  the  District  of  Columbia 
instead  of  by  the  whole  country,  there  would  still  be 
a   difference   which    I   have    suggested   by   the   word 

'  It  was  established  in  1908. 


2o6     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

"  nearly."  For  the  commissioners  are  appointed  by 
the  President  "  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate."  They  are  thus  under  a  supervisionary  power 
in  addition  to  that  of  Congress.  That  anyone  should 
find  in  all  this  a  hint  of  Galveston  is  one  of  the  curiosi- 
ties of  the  human  mind. 

We  people  of  the  United  States  are  faced  by  con- 
ditions that  need  all  our  statesmanship  for  the  read- 
justments which  are  at  hand.  The  world  (I  am 
borrowing  the  ideas  of  one  of  the  ablest  minds  of  Mas- 
sachusetts or  of  the  whole  country,  Brooks  Adams), 
proceeds  from  plane  to  plane  of  mentality,  and  the 
arrival  at  each  new  plane  requires  a  social  readjust- 
ment which  is,  in  fact,  a  revolution.  If  we  have  the 
statesmanship  equal  to  meeting  ^the  new  conditions, 
the  revolution  is  peaceful;  if  we  have  it  not,  it  comes 
in  blood.  Our  revolution  of  1776,  of  1861,  the  French 
revolution  of  1793,  were  examples  of  the  latter;  that 
of  1789,  when  we  adopted  a  constitution  which  pre- 
vented a  bloody  war  between  the  several  states,  is  an 
example  of  the  former.  True  and  highest  statesman- 
ship would  have  saved  the  blood  of  1776,  1793,  and 
of  1861. 

Machinery,  the  teaching  of  the  whole  world  to 
read,  the  immense  development  of  the  press,  of  ex- 
plosives, the  wonderful  mobility  of  the  populations, 
have  been  busy  in  this  last  hundred  years  in  creating 
a  new  mentality  which  demands  a  new  social  adjust- 
ment. The  mention  that  in  1830  facilities  existed  for 
carrying  but  sixteen  persons  daily  from  New  York 
to   Philadelphia,  and  that  in    1840  but  one  adult  in 


THE   NEWPORT   PLAN 


207 


fifty  in  England  could  read,  shows  the  immensity  of 
the  change  we  have  to  meet.  And  nowhere  is  this 
wise  statesmanship  needed  more  than  in  our  great 
towns.  Shall  we  rise  to  the  occasion  or  shall  we  pur- 
sue our  petty  politics  until  we  find  ourselves  engulfed 
in  a  great  cataclysm?  Shall  we  have  our  affairs  di- 
rected by  our  highest  intelligence  or  by  our  lowest? 
Shall  we  be  truly  democratic  and  give  the  property 
owner  a  fair  show  or  shall  we  develop  a  tyranny  of 
ignorance  which  shall  crush  him? 

The  procedure  of  Berlin  has  in  it  an  element  of 
fairness  worthy  our  consideration ;  those  representing 
large  property  interests  have  a  surety  of  being  at  least 
represented.  It  is  not  that  such  should  have  over- 
weight, but  that  they  should  have  some  weight.  I 
shall  go  further  and  say  that,  in  my  opinion,  some 
such  system  must  be  devised  if  the  holding  of  prop- 
erty at  all  be  regarded  as  moral  and  necessary  to  our 
civilization.  Remember  that  you  are,  in  a  large  sense, 
but  a  chartered  joint  stock  corporation.  Can  you 
imagine  the  control  of  any  other  joint  stock  corpora- 
tion delivered  over  to  those  who  have  no  stock  or  the 
least  stock  in  it?  Can  you  imagine  the  New  York 
&  New  Haven  Railroad,  for  example,  controlled  by  the 
passengers,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  stockholders?  Now 
this,  to  a  very  great  degree,  is  what  has  happened  in 
many  of  our  cities.  We  have  deprived  the  true  stock- 
holders, in  some  cases,  of  any  representation  what- 
ever. I  thus  hold  that  to  give  property  some  voice  in 
the  control  of  a  municipal  corporation  is  but  sense  and 
justice.      Moreover,    it   is    true    democracy,    not    the 


2o8     CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

shadow  under  which  we  now  labor.  Our  present  sys- 
tem has  excluded  in  large  degree  the  representation 
of  those  who  have  the  city's  well-being  most  at  heart. 
It  has  brought,  in  municipalities  (and  I  beg  that  it 
will  be  remembered  that  I  am  speaking  of  these  and 
not  of  the  government  of  states)  a  government  estab- 
lished by  the  least  educated,  the  least  interested  class 
of  citizens. 

It  stands  to  reason  that  a  man  paying  $5,000  taxes 
in  a  town  is  more  interested  in  the  well-being  and 
development  of  his  town  than  the  man  who  pays  no 
taxes.  Of  the  latter  there  are  93,000  in  Boston  out 
of  a  total  vote  of  1 13,000.  It  equally  stands  to  reason 
that  the  man  of  the  $5,000  tax  should  be  assured  a 
representation  in  the  committee  ^  which  lays  the  tax 
and  spends  the  money  which  he  contributes.  We  once 
took  a  notable  stand  upon  that  subject  of  "no  tax- 
ation without  representation,"  why  should  we  not  do 
it  again? 

To  talk  of  the  Berlin  system  as  un-American  and 
undemocratic  thus  seems  to  me  sheer  nonsense;  we 
want  what  is  sensible,  what  is  just.  We  do  not  want 
to  stick  to  a  false  idea  of  democracy;  to  one  that  will 
carry  us  down  and  not  up.  And  the  Berlin  procedure 
is  not  new;  it  goes  back  to  as  wise  a  man  as  Solon, 
who  was  its  advocate  and  who,  could  he  come  to  life, 
would  find  his  scheme  in  full  and  successful  operation 
in  the  best-governed  city  in  the  world. 

It  is  easy,  of  course,  to  say  that  the  adoption  of 
such  a  system  with  us  is  impossible,  but  why  impos- 
sible?    We  must  remember  that  we  have  not  come 


THE   NEWPORT   PLAN 


209 


to  a  finality  in  government  any  more  than  to  a  finality 
in  the  human  race.  It  is  probable  that  man  will  exist 
into  the  future  as  long  as  he  has  existed  in  the  past. 
Is  it  reasonable  to  suppose  that  we  have  reached  the 
end  of  governmental  ideas  and  changes?  That  we 
have  reached  perfection  of  principles?  That  we  shall 
not  change  in  the  next  thousand  years? 

Most  surely  we  have  not  so  arrived,  we  all  know 
that  there  is  vast  room  for  improvement.  We  are  still 
seekers,  and  being  seekers  we  must  put  before  our- 
selves an  ideal  and  never  say  we  cannot  do  this  thing 
or  that,  for  we  are  sure,  finally,  to  do  that  which  is 
common  sense  and  right.  If  the  sober  sense  of  the 
country  shall  come  to  think  Solon's  principle  right,  we 
shall  find  the  courage  and  energy  to  adopt  it. 

In  the  same  line  I  would  give  the  woman  taxpayer 
a  voice  in  the  election  of  those  who  are  to  appropriate 
and  spend  the  money  she  helps  to  contribute.  I  am  in 
favor  of  letting  her  vote  her  shares  in  the  town  stock, 
just  as  she  has  the  right  to  vote  her  shares  in  the  Bos- 
ton &  Maine  Railroad.  She  has  done  this  in  Eng- 
land now  for  forty  years.  Twenty  per  cent  of  the 
English  municipal  vote  is  feminine.  This  is  not 
woman  suffrage,  which  is  quite  a  different  thing. 
When  woman  can  invest  and  build  steamships  and 
locomotives,  tunnel  the  Alps,  and  put  down  a  mur- 
derous riot,  it  will  be  time  to  think  of  the  other.  But 
meanwhile  I  think  that  in  questions  of  city  expendi- 
tures every  taxpayer,  man  or  woman,  resident  or  non- 
resident— everyone,  in  fact,  who  contributes  in  any 
way  to  the  city's  upkee^D — should  have  a  vote.     And, 


2IO     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

as  I  say,  this  is  not  revolutionary,  but  practiced  suc- 
cessfully elsewhere  for  forty  years. 

That  we  have  got  to  do  some  hard  thinki/ig  in 
these  matters  is  self-evident.  A  million  of  men  and 
women,  most  of  whom  have  not  the  vaguest  idea  of 
our  ways,  are  pouring  in  upon  us  yearly  from  strange 
lands.  It  is  new  races  of  men  with  whom  we  have 
to  deal  and  educate  in  our  ways.  A  new  migration 
is  upon  us  of  nearly  all  races.  It  may  surprise  some 
here  to  know  that  some  7,000  Africans,  who  call  them- 
selves Portuguese  because  they  were  under  the  Portu- 
guese flag  in  the  Cape  Verde  islands,  have  come  into 
Massachusetts  in  the  last  few  years.  This  movement 
will  soon  find  its  way  to  the  African  coast,  but  three 
hundred  miles  farther  off,  and  if  we  let  things  slide 
in  our  easy-going,  thoughtless  way,  we  shall  soon  have 
the  Congo  upon  us.  It  thus  behooves  us  to  think  more 
of  good  government,  the  best  government,  in  our  cities 
than  of  partisan  advantage  which  means  but  corrup- 
tion and  inefficiency.  It  is  no  time  for  crude  experi- 
ment, and  in  my  opinion  the  commission  system  is  the 
crudest  which  can  be  suggested.  Try  that  which 
through  many  years  has  succeeded.  There  is  much  in 
the  fine  phrase  that  "  Truth  is  the  daughter  of  time." 
Try  the  most  successful,  that  which  we  know  to  be 
successful,  and  for  this  I  would  say  go  to  that  made 
in  Germany,  toward  which  our  Newport  system  is 
a  long  step. 


CHAPTER    XI 

RESULTS  IN  GALVESTON,   HOUSTON,   AND  OTHER  TEXAS 

CITIES 

Naturally,  students  and  administrators  ask, 
What  has  been  the  result  of  the  commission  govern- 
ment of  American  cities?  Has  there  been  any  signs 
of  a  reaction?  Do  the  people  of  the  commission- 
governed  cities  seem  to  be  satisfied?  What  are  the 
results  in  dollars  and  cents  and  in  actual  improve- 
ments ? 

Speaking  by  and  large  there  are  no  signs  of  any 
reaction.  The  movement  does  not  appear  to  have 
reached  flood  tide.  That  the  people  are  fairly  well 
satisfied  is  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  so  far  no 
city  that  has  adopted  the  commission  form  has  aban- 
doned it,  and  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain 
there  has  been  no  serious  proposition  to  that  effect. 
The  results  in  dollars  and  cents  and  in  improvements 
seem  to  be  satisfactory  so  far  as  they  have  been 
analyzed. 

To  assume  a  thing  true  because  it  is  uncontra- 
dicted is  not  a  good  rule  to  follow  as  a  usual  thing; 
nevertheless,  it  is  fair  to  assume  in  considering  a  mat- 


212      CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

ter  so  highly  controversial  as  the  results  of  municipal 
government,  that  claims  of  uniformly  successful  ad- 
ministration which  remain  uncontradicted  after  a  full 
discussion  of  the  question  may  be  accepted  at  their 
face  value.  In  this  matter,  so  far  as  I  am,  advised, 
and  I  have  sought  information  in  many  directions, 
there  has  been  no  serious  refutation  of  the  general 
claims  of  the  success  of  commission  government.  To 
be  sure,  as  already  noted,  there  have  been  exaggerated 
claims,  which  carried  their  own  refutation.  There 
will  always  be  the  claims  of  the  extremist.  What  I 
am  here  referring  to  are  the  claims  of  thoughtful, 
public-spirited  men  sincerely  interested  in  the  welfare 
of  their  respective  communities.  The  testimony  of 
these  men  has  been  uniformly  favorable. 

In  Galveston,  where  the  plan  has  longest  been  in 
operation,  the  city's  expenses  prior  to  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  new  regime,  exceeded  her  receipts  each 
year,  and  this  deficiency  was  met  by  the  issue  and 
sale  of  bonds,  to  the  extent  that  for  the  period  be- 
tween 1876  and  1897  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $2,850,- 
000  had  been  issued,  for  w^hich  the  city  had  re- 
ceived no  benefit  in  the  way  of  public  improvements, 
except  a  few  strips  of  dilapidated  wooden  block  pave- 
ments. 

This  unfortunate  condition  of  affairs  continued  to 
exist  until  the  great  calamity  in  1900,  after  which  the 
city  of  Galveston  found  herself  face  to  face  with 
financial  bankruptcy  if  she  could  not  revolutionize 
and  place  herself  upon  a  business  basis,  and  it  was 
under    such    forced    and    unfortunate    conditions    as 


RESULTS   IN   TEXAS   CITIES 


213 


then  prevailed  that  a  committee  of  her  citizens 
from  the  very  best  legal  and  business  element  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  city  government  by  commission 
and  at  once  w-ent  actively  at  work,  framing  a 
new  charter  based  upon  such  a  plan  as  the  leading 
feature. 

What  the  commission  has  accomplished  for  the 
city,  under  the  most  adverse  circumstances,  has  in- 
deed been  remarkable.  The  total  floating  debt  of  the 
city  has  been  entirely  paid  off.  It  secured  and  paid 
for  the  services  of  a  board  of  three  eminent  engineers 
which  devised  plans  for  the  great  sea  wall  and  raised 
the  grade  of  the  city.  These  improvements  have  been 
completed  at  a  total  cost  to  the  city  and  county 
jointly  of  more  than  $4,000,000.  The  commission 
rebuilt  the  city  hall ;  rebuilt  the  water  works  pumping 
station ;  extended  the  water  system ;  built  three  engine 
houses;  repaired  the  different  engine  houses  over  the 
city  damaged  by  the  storm;  repaved  with  brick  the 
streets  throughout  the  entire  business  section  at  a  cost 
to  the  city  of  $183,027.07;  built  rock  and  shell  roads 
at  a  cost  of  $181,064.04;  provided  a  large  amount  of 
drainage  at  a  cost  of  $245,664.47;  extended  the  sewer 
system  and  adjusted  the  question  of  interest  on  the 
bonded  debt  by  obtaining  a  reduction  in  the  rate  for 
a  period  of  five  years.  Altogether.  $609,755.58  have 
been  expended  out  of  the  general  fund  for  paving, 
shell  roads  and  drains,  with  the  exception  of  $48,- 
088.07,  ^vhich  was  obtained  from  sale  of  bonds.  The 
city  has  also  paid  off  a  number  of  old  judgments,  in- 
herited   from    former    administrations,    aggregating 


214     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

$18,026.65,  and  retired  $462,000  of  the  bonded  debt; 
has  purchased  new  fire  engines  and  other  equipment. 
The  city  employees  have  been  paid  promptly  in  cash, 
and  the  summer  seasons  passed  through  without  bor- 
rowing a  dollar.  All  this  has  been  accomplished 
without  a  bond  issue  or  a  dollar  of  increased  taxation, 
excepting  the  bonds  issued  for  protective  purposes.^ 

The  city  collects  interest  on  bank  balances  from 
bonded  depositories  (previously  this  went  to  the  city 
treasurer  as  a  perquisite)  ;  collects  a  special  vehicle 
tax,  which  goes  to  the  street  improvement  fund;  en- 
forces sewer  connections ;  has  metered  the  city's  water 
service;  has  cleared  the  sidewalks  of  fruit  stands  and 
other  obstructions  which  have  occupied  them  for 
years;  has  prosecuted  to  a  finish  all  outstanding 
lawsuits;  collects  taxes  promptly;  has  destroyed  the 
policy  evil  and  public  gambling  and  adopted  an  or- 
dinance districting  barrooms  out  of  the  residence  sec- 
tion. 

In  securing  the  services  of  heads  of  departments 
and  employees,  the  commissioners  have  ignored  po- 
litical influence.  Capacity  and  fitness  have  been  con- 
sidered first. 

Shortly  after  January  i,  191 1,  the  city  auditor  of 
Galveston  issued  the  following  statement  for  the 
period  September  i,  1901,  to  January  i,  191 1  (cover- 
ing the  life  of  commission  government  in  Galveston). 
These  figures  tell  their  own  story  of  careful,  business- 
like administration  of  the  city's  affairs : 

» See  article  of  E.  R.  Chesesborough,  published  by  Galveston  Deep 
Water  Committee. 


RESULTS   IN   TEXAS   CITIES  215 

Raising  the  grade  of  the  city $2,cxx3,ooo .  00 

Additional  gulf  front  protective  improve- 
ments   179,388.65 

Additional  grade  raising  West  End 176,327 .  76 

Water-works  improvements 312,242. 11 

Brick  paving  in  streets 237,902 .  36 

Drainage 319,651.63 

Sewer  extensions 290,231 .04 

Rock  and  shelled  streets 279,647 .  77 

Addition  to  electric  light  plant 37,459  •  76 

Total  improvements $3,832,851 .08 

Of  these  improvements,  $2,759,170.88  were  paid 
for  in  bonds  and  $1,073,680.20  were  paid  for  out  of 
the  general  revenue  of  the  city.  The  city  has  also 
paid  out  of  its  general  revenue  almost  $200,000  float- 
ing indebtedness,  left  over  by  the  previous  city  admin- 
istration and  for  three  new  engine  houses  and  rebuild- 
ing the  city  hall. 

Exclusive  of  the  bonds  issued  for  grade  raising 
and  school  purposes,  the  commissioners  have  issued 
the  following  bonds : 

For  paving,  drainage  and  shelling $300,000 .  00 

Additional  gulf  front  protection 225,000.00 

Filling  north  of  Broadway  and  west  of 

Thirty-third 78,270.88 

Balance  sewer  bonds  on  hand  when  com- 
mission took  over  the  city  govern- 
ment   227,400.00 


Total.  . ." $830,670.88 

Less  bonds  now  on  hand  and  unsold 71,500.00 


Total  net $759,170.88 

15 


2i6     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

The  total  amount  of  bonds  paid  off  and  destroyed 
by  the  board  of  commissioners,  including  $550,000  of 
the  grade-raising  bonds  retired  with  state  donation 
funds,  is  $1,124,336.62.  There  were  also  destroyed 
$620,663.38  in  bonds  left  in  various  funds  from  the 
mayor-aldermen  administration. 

Certainly  the  Galveston  Tribune,  in  the  light  of 
these  figures,  is  quite  justified  in  saying :  "  When  a 
citizen  of  Galveston  sits  down  and  considers  these 
figures  he  cannot  but  realize  that  the  city  government 
is  a  big  business  corporation  and  one  whose  manage- 
ment should  be  intrusted  only  to  men  of  unquestioned 
ability.  If  it  was  his  own  private  business  he  would 
certainly  be  careful  in  selecting  the  men  to  manage  it. 

"  From  the  first  the  Galveston  commission  has  been 
successful.  It  has  had  the  backing  of  practically  all 
the  taxpayers  and  a  decided  majority  of  the  voters  of 
the  city.  As  a  result,  it  succeeded  in  electing  in  the 
first  instance,  and  has  since  been  able  to  maintain  in 
office,  men  of  executive  ability.  Being  given  a  free 
hand,  these  men  have  been  able  to  make  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  show'ings  ever  made  by  any  city  ad- 
ministration in  a  like  period  of  time." 

In  reviewing  the  success  of  the  Galveston  com- 
mission, it  is  only  proper  to  mention  a  civic  organiza- 
tion which  has  contributed  not  a  little  to  that  success 
— the  City  Club,  an  organization  of  the  business  men 
of  the  city,  organized  for  the  purpose  of  civic  im- 
provement. One  of  its  most  important  duties  has 
been,  how^ever,  the  maintenance  of  the  commission  in 
power.    It  is  a  theory  of  the  government  of  Galveston 


RESULTS   IN   TEXAS    CITIES  217 

that  the  office  should  seek  the  man,  and  not  the  man 
the  office.  Consequently  the  City  Club  has  undertaken 
to  relieve  the  city  commissioners  of  all  responsibilities 
connected  with  their  reelection.  Thus,  the  commis- 
sioners themselves  are  taken  out  of  politics.  They  are 
men  who  in  general  dislike  politics  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  term,  and  who  could  be  induced  to  accept 
public  office  under  no  other  conditions.  They  merely 
consent  to  serve  if  elected.  The  City  Club  undertakes 
their  election.  It  raises  the  campaign  funds  by  sub- 
scription, publishes  and  circulates  the  literature,  and 
looks  after  all  the  details  of  the  election.  The  com- 
missioners do  not  even  contribute  to  the  campaign 
fund.  The  club  has  been  entirely  successful  in  every 
election  except  the  last  one,  and  returned  its  candi- 
dates to  office.  At  the  last  election,  in  May,  1909,  the 
club  refused  to  indorse  the  police  commissioner,  but 
he  was  reelected.  The  club  also  indorsed  the  mayor 
for  reelection,  but  he  was  defeated  by  the  opposing 
candidate.  In  the  case  of  the  mayor,  however,  there 
was  no  great  difference  between  the  two  candidates, 
and,  while  the  club  indorsed  the  mayor  for  reelection, 
it  did  not  oppose  the  election  of  the  successful  can- 
didate. So  the  government  of  Galveston  is  still  being 
administered  by  the  same  commission  which  has  been 
in  power  since  it  was  first  adopted  in  1901,  with  the 
single  exception  that  it  has  a  new  mayor.^ 

Houston,  which  has  been  operating  under  the  com- 
mission government  since  1905,  can  give  an  equally 

^Bulletin  of  the  Extension  Division  of  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin. 


2i8      CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

good  account  of  herself.  In  fact,  a  better  account, 
because  what  she  has  done  was  accompHshed  without 
the  sharp  spur  of  necessity. 

In  the  six  years  of  commission  rule  Houston  has 
wiped  out  all  floating  debt  and  has  given  to  the  tax- 
payers out  of  the  treasury  and  without  the  issuance 
of  a  single  bond,  the  following  permanent  investments : 

School  buildings $340,323 . 65 

Auditorium 332,276.02 

Extension  of  mains  and  improvements, 

water  department 247,932 . 02 

Paved  streets 1 79,281 .  96 

Ship  channel 98,027 . 40 

Sewers 85,212.18 

Buildings  and  equipment,  fire  department  66, 1 50 .  45 

Parks 52,007 .  53 

Streets  and  bridges 65,714 .  10 

Wharfs  and  slips 33,109 .  89 

Electrical  department 26,551 .  21 

Block  book  system  for  assessor  and  col- 
lector   10,000.00 

Health  department 6,168 .  26 

Police  department 4,096 .  03 

City  hall,  furniture  and  fixtures 1,123 .  67 

City  attorney,  law  library 974 .  10 

Asphalt  plant 3,000 .  00 

Total  improvements $1,551,928.47 

EXTRAORDINARY  EXPENSES 

Storrie  certificates $73,300. 00 

Refund  paving  certificates 120,308 .  70 

Sinking  fund 120,220.00 

Making  a  grand  total $1,865,757.17 


RESULTS   IN   TEXAS   CITIES  219 

paid  out  of  current  revenues,  besides  the  elimination 
of  the  floating  debt,  amounting  to  over  $400,000. 

While  these  improvements  have  been  going  on 
the  tax  rate  has  been  reduced  30  cents  on  the  $100. 

In  an  address  before  Chicago  Association  of  Com- 
merce, Mayor  H.  B.  Rice  of  Houston,  who  has  just 
been  renominated  for  a  fourth  term  (he  having  been 
the  managing  head  of  the  commission  from  the  be- 
ginning,^) describes  the  results  of  commission  rule  in 
his  city  thus: 

"  I  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  during  more 
than  five  years  of  this  government  in  Houston,  no 
alderman  or  commissioner  has  ever  made  a  speech  or 
addressed  the  council.  The  business  of  the  city  is 
conducted  daily  like  any  other  business  concern,  and 
when  they  meet  in  public  session  on  Monday  after- 
noon, conformably  to  law,  it  is  merely  to  legalize 
and  make  record  of  their  weekly  business  transac- 
tions. The  length  of  the  public  meetings  ranges  from 
five  to  fifteen  minutes." 

In  1905  the  price  of  gas  was  $1.50  per  thousand. 
To-day  it  is  $1.05  and  next  year  $1,  and  the  com- 
pany pays  one  per  cent  annually  •  upon  its  gross  re- 
ceipts. In  1905  the  price  of  arc  lights  was  $80  per 
year;  now  it  is  $70  per  year.  The  telephone  com- 
panies claimed  that  they  did  not  need  a  franchise  from 
cities  in  Texas,  yet  they  were  made  to  conform  to  the 
law,  and  they  pay  one  per  cent  to  the  city  upon  their 
gross  receipts. 

*One  other  commissioner,  the  Hon.  J.  Z.  Gaston,   has  served 
from  the  beginning. 


220      CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

In  1906  the  city  of  Houston  purchased  the  water 
plant  from  a  private  corporation,  the  Houston  Water 
Works  Company,  and  paid  $901,000  for  it.  The 
source  of  supply  is  artesian  wells  in  the  heart  of  the 
city.  At  the  time  of  purchase  the  private  corporation 
was  charging  50  cents  per  thousand  meter  rate  for 
water,  and  often  pumping  from  the  stream  which 
flows  through  Houston,  thus  not  giving  to  the  com- 
munity pure  water. 

To-day,  under  municipal  ownership.  Mayor  Rice 
pointed  out,  the  city  of  Houston  charges  only  15 
cents  per  thousand  gallons  for  water,  on  a  meter 
basis,  and  it  is  all  from  artesian  wells  and  absolutely 
pure.  The  plant  is  worth  to-day  three  times  its  cost 
to  the  city.  The  street  car  company  pays  annually  one 
per  cent  upon  its  gross  receipts,  has  more  than 
doubled  its  facilities,  and  will  compare  favorably  with 
any  other  electric  system  in  the  country.  The  tax  rate 
has  been  reduced  from  $2  to  $1.70.  It  is  assessed 
at  $62,000,000. 

The  total  revenues  from  all  sources  up  to  date,  for 
five  years,  amounted  to  $6,579,683.08. 

From  the  tabulated  statement  above  given  it  will 
be  seen  that  after  deducing  the  running  expenses  of 
the  government  the  city  has  placed  more  than  thirty- 
one  per  cent  in  permanent  improvements,  something 
that  the  property  holder  can  see  for  his  taxes.  Four 
hundred  thousand  dollars  of  the  floating  debt  was  re- 
deemed during  the  first  year  of  commission  govern- 
ment. This  was  accomplished  through  economy  and 
not  squandering  the  public  revenue. 


RESULTS    IN    TEXAS    CITIES  221 

Salaries  of  the  school  teachers,  firemen,  and  police- 
men have  been  increased,  and  other  employees  who 
have  worked  for  years  and  been  faithful  and  efficient. 
The  city  of  Houston  assessed  its  property  holders  in 
1905  $37,000,000;  it  is  now  $62,000,000.  This  is  an 
increase  in  five  years  of  $25,000,000,  over  one  half 
of  which  is  in  building  permits.  The  city  has  grown 
in  five  years  fully  40  per  cent  of  its  entire  population, 
and  land  values  have  enormously  increased  during  that 
time.  The  real  taxable  value  of  Houston  is  estimated 
to  be  $250,000,000. 

In  concluding  his  Chicago  address  from  which 
these  facts  are  taken,  Mayor  Rice  said : 

"  After  years  of  study  and  e.\perience  I  find  that 
nothing  will  bring  forth  the  energies  and  progress 
of  a  people  so  much  as  a  municipal  government  that 
fights  for  business  methods,  who  are  progressive  them- 
selves and  demonstrate  to  the  taxpayers  that  they  are 
going  to  have  a  *  day's  work  for  a  day's  pay.'  Hous- 
ton is  a  practical  demonstration  of  this.  In  1905 
everyone  was  '  down  in  the  mouth,'  building  had 
stopped,  and  men  of  means  refused  to  make  any  im- 
provements." 

An  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which  the  business 
administration  of  the  city  was  reorganized  by  the  com- 
mission government  on  its  advent  to  power  is  afforded 
by  an  innovation  which  it  introduced  in  the  office  of 
city  treasurer.  Under  the  old  system  there  had  been 
a  city  treasurer  on  a  salary  of  $2,500  per  year.  Noth- 
ing was  said  about  interest  on  city  deposits,  so  these 
also  went  to  the  treasurer.    The  city  commission  abol- 


222      CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

ished  the  office  of  city  treasurer  and  appointed  one  of 
the  national  banks  city  depository.  Now  the  city 
handles  its  business  through  the  bank  the  same  as 
any  other  corporation,  the  city  paying  the  bank  $50 
per  month  clerk  hire  and  the  bank  paying  the  city 
interest  on  all  balances  to  the  credit  of  the  city  in 
the  bank.  In  this  way  the  city  annually  receives 
$6,000  to  $10,000,  which  formerly  went  to  the  city 
treasurers. 

In  the  words  of  Mayor  Rice  in  his  recent  annual 
message :  "  The  financial  condition  of  Houston  is  in 
splendid  shape.  We  not  only  enter  the  new  year 
(1909-10)  without  any  floating  indebtedness,  but  with 
a  surplus  on  hand,  and  with  $100,000  worth  of  Harris 
county  bonds  in  our  sinking  fund  drawing  interest." 

Dallas  claims  to  be  the  best-governed  city  in  the 
United  States,  and  backs  up  its  claim  by  citing  the 
results  she  has  achieved  under  commission  govern- 
ment. Whether  any  one  city  can  reasonably  claim 
such  a  distinction,  certainly  the  results  in  Dallas  have 
been  highly  satisfactory  to  the  people.  The  growth 
in  public  confidence  as  the  commissioners  began  to 
bring  order  out  of  disorder  and  to  give  the  people 
value  received  for  their  money,  is  shown  in  the  growth 
of  the  building  permits  in  Dallas.  In  1908  the  total 
was  $2,306,098;  in  1909  it  climbed  to  $3,393,683.  An 
even  larger  total  is  expected  for  191  o.  At  the  same 
time  the  transfers  of  real  estate  increased  from  $10,- 
816,889.55  to  $21,884,144. 

As  an  evidence  of  the  spirit  of  enterprise  abroad 
in  the  community,  and  of  the  abounding  confidence 


RESULTS    IN    TEXAS    CITIES 


223 


the  people  have  in  the  present  form  of  government, 
J.  R.  Hornady  mentions  the  fact  that  the  voters  in 
April,  1910,  forced  the  commissioners  to  call  an  elec- 
tion to  pass  upon  an  issue  of  $1,300,000  of  bonds  for 
public  improvements.  In  view  of  the  great  amount 
of  improvement  work  in  progress,  the  commissioners 
advised  delay  in  providing  for  the  proposed  better- 
ments, but  the  people  would  not  hear  to  delaying  the 
matter  and  voted  the  bonds  over  the  protest  of  the 
officials.  Moreover,  the  people  voluntarily  voted  to 
increase  their  taxes  thirty-two  cents  on  the  $100, 
seven  cents  being  for  school  purposes  and  the  balance 
for  street  improvements. 

Speaking  in  New  York  before  a  meeting  of  busi- 
ness men,  September  30,  1909,  C.  B.  Gillespie,  com- 
missioner of  finance  and  revenue,  said:  "In  the  two 
years'  experience  of  Dallas,  under  the  commission  form 
of  government,  many  miles  of  streets  have  been  sub- 
stantially paved ;  the  enforcement  of  sidewalk  construc- 
tion is  general  throughout  the  city;  four  new  parks 
have  been  acquired,  numerous  public  buildings  have 
been  erected,  extensive  additions  to  the  water-works 
system  are  under  way,  and  many  reforms  have  been 
brought  about ;  among  which  was  the  reduction  of  the 
city's  street  lighting  from  ^y^  per  arc  light  per  year  to 
$60.  In  a  financial  way  the  city  has  shown  a  decided 
improvement.  Its  books  are  maintained  up  to  date  in 
every  respect  and  the  status  of  any  fund  or  account  can 
be  ascertained  at  any  hour  as  easily  as  a  bank  can  show 
a  depositor's  balance.  New  methods  and  systems  have 
been  invoked,  daily  itemized  reports  of  all  collections 


224 


CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 


are  required,  together  with  a  deposit  daily  with  the 
treasurer  of  all  funds  collected,  all  of  which  is  followed 
by  regular  systematic  checking  of  all  departments.  The 
city  of  Dallas  operates  thirty-three  departments  under 
what  is  known  as  its  general  fund,  and  which  does  not 
include  the  school,  park,  library,  water  and  sewerage, 
street  improvement,  and  interest  and  sinking  funds. 
Of  May  I,  1907,  one  month  before  the  present  board 
of  commissioners  assumed  control,  the  general  fund  of 
the  city  was  overdrawn  $122,575.27,  which  was  the 
result  of  two  acts  of  the  former  council  administra- 
tion: 

"  First,  making  an  excess  budget  over  receipts  of 
$67,084.66. 

"  Second,  expending  in  excess  of  its  budget  $55,- 
490.61. 

"During  the  two  years  ending  May  i,  1909,  the 
board  of  commissioners  maintained  these  departments 
at  a  net  saving  under  the  cost  of  the  former  administra- 
tion, and  by  enforcing  the  collection  of  all  revenues  it 
was  enabled  to  liquidate  the  above  overdraft  and  close 
the  fiscal  year  with  a  credit  balance  in  its  general  fund 
of  $10,290.02. 

"  The  afifairs  of  the  city  are  treated  as  a  business 
proposition,  and  are  handled  about  the  same  as  a  bank's 
directory  would  manage  its  affairs,  and  during  the 
two  and  a  fraction  years  of  the  Dallas  board  of  com- 
missioners no  disruption  of  any  kind  has  occurred. 
Nor  has  a  single  speech  been  made  by  the  mayor  or  any 
member  of  the  board  at  any  of  its  meetings." 

Other  cities   in   Texas   tell   the  same   story.      To 


RESULTS    IN   TEXAS    CITIES 


225 


illustrate,  here  is  a  letter  from  a  leading  journalist  in 
Fort  Worth  which  is  typical : 

"  After  three  years  of  experience  Fort  Worth  is 
entirely  satisfied  with  the  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment. It  would  be  difficult  to  make  an  exhibit  of 
greater  economy  in  Fort  Worth,  because  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  city  has  necessarily  increased  expenses, 
but  any  fair  study  of  the  situation  will  reveal  the 
truth  that  expenses  are  less  under  the  commission 
than  they  would  have  been  under  the  old  aldermanic 
form.  Administration  has  been  much  more  efficient 
and  has  been  marked  by  an  unusual  status  of  public 
confidence.  This  point  is  amply  demonstrated  in  an 
experience  of  the  last  few  weeks.  In  the  course  of 
development  it  became  necessary  to  increase  our 
water  supply,  and  the  commission  submitted  a  pro- 
posal for  a  bond  issue  of  $2,000,000  for  water  works 
and  some  minor  public  improvements.  Before  doing 
so,  however,  the  directors  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and 
the  Clearing  House  Association  were  invited  to  ap- 
point committees  of  conference  to  labor  with  the  com- 
missioners in  working  out  the  details.  When  these 
bodies  had  reached  a  satisfactory  conclusion,  the  pro- 
posal was  submitted  to  the  people  and  overwhelm- 
ingly adopted. 

"  Another  instance  may  be  cited.  A  few  months 
ago  there  was  a  sensational  report  of  waste  and  fraud 
in  certain  public  improvements.  A  thorough  investi- 
gation was  made  by  the  grand  jury  and  by  a  com- 
mittee of  expert  auditors,  and  as  a  consequence  it  was 
found  that  the  report  was  wholly  false  except  as  to 


226     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

the  stealing  of  a  few  sacks  of  cement  by  an  employee. 
A  thorough  examination  of  the  books  showed  that 
not  a  dollar  had  been  misapplied,  though  several  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  dollars  had  been  spent  during 
the  period  under  investigation." 


CHAPTER    XII 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    TEXAS    CITIES 

In  1908,  Prof.  Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  of  Harvard, 
and  at  present  the  chairman  of  the  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  National  Municipal  League,  made  a  trip 
through  Texas.  The  impressions  he  gathered  during 
this  trip  he  published  ^  in  the  Boston  Transcript,  and 
they  are  reproduced  in  this  connection  as  giving  the 
views  of  a  dispassionate  critic,  sympathetic  with  the 
aspirations  of  American  cities  to  improve  their  ad- 
ministrative methods. 

The  urban  conditions  in  Texas  and  the  rivalry  of 
the  large  cities  are  sufficiently  described.  It  does  not 
appear  that  any  of  these  places  have  suffered  more 
from  bad  government  than  the  common  lot;  as  com- 
pared with  Northern  communities  of  equivalent  popu- 
lation, the  total  taxes  of  San  Antonio  and  Houston 
have  been  less  than  might  be  expected ;  those  of  Dallas 
and  Fort  Worth  rather  greater;  Galveston  is  in  an 
anomalous  position  because  of  the  destruction  in  the 
storm  of  1900.     Dallas  has  less  than  the  average  of 

'  See  Boston  Evening  Transcript,  April  11,  1908. 

227 


2  28     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

municipal  debt.  San  Antonio,  Houston,  and  Fort 
Worth  are  all  heavily  in  debt,  and  Galveston  is 
weighed  down  by  the  cost  of  new  improvements  neces- 
sary to  insure  its  existence.  There  was,  therefore,  a 
field  for  municipal  retrenchment  and  reform;  but  up 
to  the  Galveston  storm  no  upheaval  of  public  senti- 
ment, no  demand  for  a  change  of  municipal  system. 

Nevertheless,  the  ground  in  Texas  is  unusually 
well  adapted  for  experiments  in  government,  inas- 
much as  the  State  and  every  one  of  the  large  cities 
is  overwhelmingly  Democratic  in  politics,  so  that  it  is 
not  possible  to  resort  to  the  usual  method  of  a  citizens' 
movement  which  shall  hold  the  balance  of  power  be- 
tween the  regular  parties  and  compel  one  or  the  other 
to  accept  a  reform  candidate  or  a  policy  of  thrift. 
This  state  of  things  has  its  advantages,  inasmuch  as 
it  makes  it  possible  to  get  startling  changes  of  city 
charters,  without  thereby  impairing  the  success  of  the 
dominant  party  in  state  and  national  elections. 

Again,  the  social  organization  of  the  Southern 
cities  is  different  from  that  of  the  Northern;  even  in 
communities  like  those  of  Texas,  where  people  have 
come  together  from  all  over  the  country,  the  respect- 
able, the  educated,  the  moneyed  men,  the  leaders, 
know  each  other,  hang  together,  and  have  a  sense  of 
common  enterprise.  It  is  decidedly  more  difficult  in 
those  cities  than  in  equivalent  Northern  cities  for  men 
previously  unknown  to  push  themselves  forward  by 
their  ability  to  bring  out  the  vote  and  to  make  political 
combinations.  Southerners  have  a  wholesome  tradi- 
tion of  political  leadership,  which  makes  it  easier  to 


OBSERVATIONS   ON   TEXAS    CITIES        229 

engineer  movements  in  which  large  responsibility  is 
put  on  a  few  people. 

These  habits  of  mind  have  greatly  conduced  to  the 
bringing  in  of  commission  government,  but  the  imme- 
diate occasion  was  the  special  conditions  in  Galveston, 
a  city  which  was  not  only  hit  very  hard  by  the  great 
storm,  but  in  which  a  large  part  of  the  property  is 
owned  by  less  than  a  score  of  persons.  When  in  1900 
there  came  a  question  of  clearing  away  the  debris  and 
making  the  sandy  island  safe  for  human  habitation, 
the  community  was  faced  with  a  diminished  popula- 
tion and  an  increased  task.  The  old  city  government 
of  the  usual  commonplace  type  was  inadequate  for 
such  an  emergency.  Although  property  is  so  concen- 
trated, there  are  no  startlingly  wealthy  men  in  Gal- 
veston; the  whole  community  must  contribute  to  the 
regeneration  of  the  city;  yet  the  new  work  must  be 
well  and  cheaply  done  or  it  would  ruin  the  people. 
The  solution  was  to  put  the  city  into  the  hands  of  a 
kind  of  public  receivers,  who  should  carry  it  through 
this  serious  crisis;  and  the  outcome  was  the  first  of 
the  series  of  commission  governments,  chartered  April 
18,  1 90 1,  a  few  months  after  the  catastrophe,  and  still 
in  successful  operation  seven  years  later. 

The  Galveston  government  was  from  the  first  a 
success;  it  had  the  backing  of  three  fourths  of  the 
taxpayers  and  of  a  decided  majority  of  the  voters. 
For  reasons  which  are  not  obvious  on  the  face  of  it, 
the  negroes  were  at  first  on  the  side  of  the  commis- 
sion; and  under  the  laws  of  Texas  about  half  the 
negroes  of  voting  age  are  able  to  qualify  and  vote; 


230     CITY   GOVERxNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

with  splendid  spirit  the  whole  community  bent  to  the 
work  of  reconstruction.  Facing  the  conditions  and 
realizing  that  money  could  not  be  raised  in  the  general 
market,  the  loan  of  $1,500,000  for  the  construction 
of  the  sea  wall  was  taken  up  at  home.  Truck  drivers 
and  workmen  subscribed  for  $100  bonds  and  paid  for 
them  in  monthly  installments;  and  one  of  the  few  rich 
concerns  took  $200,000  at  once.  This  improvement 
was  handled  by  the  county  government,  which  was 
animated  by  the  same  spirit  as  the  city  commissioners. 
A  contract  was  made  for  the  sea  wall,  which  stretches 
two  miles  and  half  along  the  outside  of  the  island,  and 
makes  it  certain  that  no  storm  of  a  severity  known  to 
the  memory  of  man  or  to  any^  record  of  the  past 
would  again  break  into  the  city,  crushing  houses,  using 
the  fragments  as  a  battering  ram  to  break  up  other 
buildings  and  entangling  and  drowning  thousands  of 
people.  It  seems  improbable  that  this  great  improve- 
ment could  have  been  carried  through  except  for  the 
confidence  felt  in  the  city  government,  upon  which  fell 
the  burden  of  keeping  the  municipal  finances  within 
bounds.  The  process  was  aided  by  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, which  spent  about  $750,000  in  extending  the 
sea  wall  in  front  of  its  military  reservation.  On  the 
heels  of  this  project  came  the  even  bolder  and  more 
ambitious  scheme  of  raising  the  grade  of  that  part  of 
the  city  which  suffered  most  from  the  storm ;  this  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  city  government  through 
a  grade-raising  board,  appointed  by  the  governor  of 
the  State,  and  $2,000,000  was  set  aside  for  that  pur- 
pose; the  State  aiding  by  remitting  taxes  averaging 


OBSERVATIONS    ON    TEXAS    CITIES 


231 


about  $65,000  a  year  for  seventeen  years.    This  great 
improvement  is  now  nearing  completion. 

This  striking  success  at  once  affected  the  city  of 
Houston,  about  sixty  miles  from  Galveston,  and  at 
that  time  burdened  with  a  heavy  bonded  debt,  and  an 
obstinate  floating  debt  of  $400,000,  which  was  ill- 
served  by  a  board  of  aldermen  of  the  usual  type,  and 
about  twenty-three  heads  of  departments,  all  elected 
by  the  people.  Here,  as  in  Galveston,  the  business 
men  demanded  a  change.  The  committee  of  the  city 
government,  cooperating  with  a  citizen's  committee  in 
joint  session,  drew  up  a  charter  based  on  that  of  Gal- 
veston, though  giving  considerably  greater  power  to 
the  mayor;  the  legislature  in  1905  passed  the  desired 
statute;  and  five  commissioners  were  shortly  elected 
who  have  been  once  reelected.  Good  business  manage- 
ment at  once  showed  itself  in  the  improved  condition 
of  the  city  finances,  and  this  speedily  aroused  the  other 
large  cities  in  the  State.  In  Fort  Worth  there  was  no 
especial  complaint  of  the  city  government,  but  a  citi- 
zens' movement  led  to  the  draughting  of  a  charter 
which  the  obliging  legislature  enacted,  on  condition 
that  it  be  submitted  to  popular  vote.  Any  good  thing 
that  happens  in  Fort  Worth  must  be  submitted  to  the 
test  also  in  the  rival  city  of  Dallas.  Here  there  was 
little  positive  complaint  of  the  city  government,  but  a 
feeling  that  something  better  might  be  secured.  A  citi- 
zens' movement  resulted  in  the  draught  of  a  charter, 
and  in  the  city  election  of  April,  1906,  the  sense  of  the 
voters   was  taken ;   inasmuch  as   a   decided   majority 

appeared  in  favor  of  commission  government  the  leg- 
10 


232 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 


islature  passed  the  desired  statute,  which  went  into 
force  in  April,  1907.  A  similar  movement  in  San 
Antonio,  the  largest  city,  resulted  in  the  charter  being 
voted  down  by  the  people,  and  that  city  continues  on 
the  old  system. 

From  this  brief  sketch  it  is  evident  that  the  incep- 
tion of  commission  government  was  the  extraordinary 
conditions  of  Galveston  which,  though,  solvent,  was 
faced  by  the  necessity  of  great  expenditures  which 
people  were  not  willing  to  trust  to  the  old-fashioned 
city  government.  The  notable  success  in  Galveston 
led  in  six  years  to  the  creation  of  other  commission 
governments.  In  every  city  except  Galveston,  the  old 
city  government  connived  at  its  own  destruction  by 
appointing  committees  to  cooperate  with  citizens' 
movements  in  drawing  up  charters.  In  the  first  two 
cities,  Galveston  and  Houston,  the  legislature  enacted 
the  charters  in  the  belief  that  they  were  acceptable  to 
the  people;  in  the  other  two  cities  they  were  actual 
popular  votes;  and  the  whole  thing  was  made  easier 
because  the  cities  all  had  strong  Democratic  majorities 
which  would  not  be  affected  by  any  change  of  charter. 

The  four  charters  are  a  contribution  to  the  science 
of  municipal  government,  and  though  they  differ  con- 
siderably from  each  other  in  details,  all  contain  three 
main  principles :  a  small  commission  with  both  legis- 
lative and  executive  powers;  absolute  control  of  the 
commissioners  over  the  subordinate  officers  of  the  city 
government;  and  searching  limitations  on  the  grants 
of  franchises.  Of  the  four  charters,  those  of  Gal- 
veston and  Dallas  are  superior  to  the  other  two  in 


OBSERVATIONS    ON    TEXAS    CITIES        233 

clearness,  explicitness,  and  arrangement.  The  Dallas 
charter  is  particularly  well  analyzed,  and  ought  to  be 
consulted  by  the  makers  of  any  modern  city  charter. 
Briefly  to  state  the  general  trend  of  the  charters,  they 
all  constitute  a  governing  board  consisting  of  a  mayor 
and  four  commissioners  who  in  Houston  have  the 
collective  name  of  City  Council;  all  of  them  are  sal- 
aried in  amounts  which  are  considered  liberal  in  an 
agricultural  state  like  Texas;  $2,400  in  Houston, 
$3,000  in  the  two  northern  cities,  $1,200  in  Galveston, 
where  they  are  not  expected  to  put  in  their  whole  time. 
The  mayor  in  Houston  and  Dallas  draws  a  salary  of 
$4,000,  in  Fort  Worth  a  little  less,  in  Galveston  the 
inadequate  sum  of  $2,000.  In  general,  the  powers  of 
government  are  exercised  by  the  board  as  a  body,  for 
although  the  mayor  in  some  cases  has  a  veto  power, 
he  can  be  overridden  by  three  of  his  colleagues  acting 
together. 

These  commissioners  and  the  mayor  are  elected 
for  the  unreasonably  short  term  of  two  years.  With 
a  few  exceptions  all  the  other  servants  and  employees 
of  commission  cities  are  appointed  by,  responsible  to, 
and  removed  by  the  board  of  commissioners. 

Upon  no  subject  has  more  pains  been  taken  in 
draughting  these  charters  than  in  the  clauses  on  fran- 
chises ;  in  Galveston,  for  instance,  every  franchise 
must  have  previous  public  notice,  must  contain  pro- 
visions for  forfeiture  in  case  of  noncompliance,  is  a 
subject  of  taxation,  and  cannot  run  more  than  fifty 
years.  In  Houston  the  commission  may  grant  a  fran- 
chise, with  due  precautions,  for  less  than  thirty  years, 


234 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


but  may  submit  any  project  to  the  voters  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  corporation  asking  the  franchise,  and 
must  submit  franchises  running  more  than  thirty 
years;  in  Dallas  no  franchise  can  run  more  than 
twenty  years,  and  every  franchise  must  include  a  pay- 
ment of  four  per  cent  of  the  gross  revenues  to  the 
city,  which  shall  have  a  right  of  purchase ;  and  the 
grant  of  every  franchise  is  subject  to  a  referendum, 
if  called  for.  In  Fort  Worth  every  ordinance  of 
every  kind  is  subject  to  a  referendum.  Here  we  have 
the  various  protections  of  publicity,  discussion,  ex- 
plicitness,  and  renumeration  to  the. city,  with  a  ref- 
erendum in  the  background. 

Of  course  these  paper  provisions  are  only  the  out- 
side of  commission  government,  ^nd  it  remains  to  be 
considered  how  far  these  governments  are  efficient, 
and  how  deeply  they  are  rooted  in  the  political  con- 
victions of  the  people.  It  is  evident  that  incompetent 
commissioners  can  carry  on  an  extravagent  govern- 
ment as  easily  as  an  incompetent  mayor  and  council, 
and  further,  that  a  commission  elected  by  popular  vote 
and  holding  only  for  two  years  may  have  no  more 
continuous  policy  than  a  city  government  of  the  ordi- 
nary type.  Inasmuch  as  in  Dallas  and  Fort  Worth  the 
commissions  are  both  in  their  first  terms,  and  in 
Houston  in  their  second  terms,  the  only  city  whose 
experience  throws  light  on  the  likelihood  that  good 
commissioners  will  be  reelected  is  Galveston,  where 
the  system  is  in  its  fourth  term,  and  there  has  been 
only  one  change,  and  that  due  to  the  death  of  a 
commissioner.     This  is  the  more  remarkable  because 


OBSERVATIONS    ON    TEXAS    CITIES 


235 


not  one  of  the  commissioners  has  ever  been  an  ac- 
tive poHtician.  Mayor  Landes  was  a  retired  mer- 
chant and  had  never  been  in  the  city  government  till 
he  was  elected  mayor;  Commissioner  Kempner 
(finance)  is  a  banker  and  cotton  factor  on  a  large 
scale,  and  would  not  have  accepted  a  commissioner- 
ship  but  that  his  duties  are  such  that  he  can  perform 
them  without  giving  up  his  business;  Commissioner 
Lange  (water  works  and  sewerage)  is  a  wholesale 
grocer  who  had  seen  service  as  a  water  commissioner; 
Commissioner  Norman  (police  and  fire)  had  been  in 
the  City  Council,  but  was  elected  as  a  special  repre- 
sentative of  the  Good  Government  League;  Commis- 
sioner Austin  (streets  and  public  property)  is  a  native 
of  Galveston  and  a  practical  real-estate  man.  This  is 
clearly  a  business  commission,  and  makes  upon  the 
inquirer  the  impression  of  straightforward,  honest, 
and  capable  men.  The  voters  are  about  3,200,  and 
at  the  last  election  the  commission  received  about 
2,100  votes  to  1,100;  in  the  minority  were  practically 
all  the  five  hundred  qualified  negro  voters,  who  voted 
against  the  commission  because  it  had  passed  a  Jim 
Crow  ordinance  for  the  local  street  cars.  The  old- 
fashioned  politician  is  still  uneasy,  and  some  of  the 
most  intelligent  men  in  the  city  think  that  it  would 
be  safer  to  have  a  commission  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor. 

In  Houston,  Mayor  Rice  is  the  son  of  a  Massa- 
chusetts man  who  emigrated  to  Texas  before  the  Civil 
War;  he  had  been  a  mayor  for  one  term  under  the 
old  city  government;  Commissioner  Gaston  (finance) 


236     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

is  a  merchant,  and  was  in  the  board  of  aldermen  be- 
fore the  commission  came  in;  Commissioner  Thomp- 
son (water,  light,  and  health),  a  printer,  had  been  in 
the  board  of  aldermen  since  1900;  Commissioner  Ap- 
pleby (fire  and  police)  is  a  locomotive  engineer,  and 
representative  of  the  railroad  men,  and  first  entered 
public  life  when  elected  to  the  commission;  Com- 
missioner Marmion  (streets,  bridges,  and  public 
grounds),  formerly  a  blacksmith,  then  recorder  and 
justice  of  the  peace — hence  called  Judge  Marmion — 
first  entered  public  life  as  a  commissioner.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  this  board  is  of  a  different  make-up  from  the 
Galveston  board,  having  more  political  experience,  and 
less  business  training.  But  it  should  be  noted  that  in 
all  the  commission  cities  there  afe  expert  chiefs  in  the 
various  departments,  and  that  in  Houston  the  mayor 
has  much  larger  power  and  influence  than  in  any  other 
commission  city;  his  principle  is,  however,  to  throw 
the  responsibility  upon  each  department  head  and  to 
leave  to  him  the  appointment  of  his  own  subordinates 
so  long  as  he  justifies  that  confidence. 

In  Fort  Worth,  the  commissioners,  when  I  was 
there,  were  Mayor  Harris,  a  lawyer,  former  judge,  and 
mayor  under  the  former  city  government  at  the  time  of 
the  change;  Commissioner  ]\Iulkey  (fire  and  police), 
many  years  ago  an  alderman,  but  of  late  a  retired  busi- 
ness man  of  large  means;  Commissioner  Davidson 
(streets  and  public  grounds),  a  stock  man  and  capital- 
ist; Commissioner  Stevens  (water,  lights,  and  sewer- 
age), a  master  plumber;  and  Commissioner  Colvin 
finance  and  revenue),  the  cashier  of  a  national  bank. 


OBSERVATIONS    ON    TEXAS    CITIES        237 

This  board  is  very  like  that  of  Galveston  in  the  reliance 
on  business  rather  than  political  experience  and  also  in 
having  for  its  finance  commissioner  a  practical  every- 
day banker. 

In  Dallas,  ISIayor  Hay  is  in  the  wholesale  paper 
business,  and  his  previous  public  service  had  been  as 
president  of  the  board  of  education;  Commissioner 
Sullivan  (water  and  sewerage)  is  a  wholesale 
plumber,  and  had  been  one  of  a  commission  which 
had  a  kind  of  veto  authority  over  city  legislation  un- 
der the  old  system  and  was  a  former  superintendent 
of  water  works;  Commissioner  Devan  (streets  and 
public  improvements)  has  been  in  various  businesses, 
as  stone-cutting,  building,  meat  packing;  Commis- 
sioner Seay  (police  and  fire)  is  a  practicing  lawyer; 
Commissioner  Gillespie  (finance  and  revenue)  is  in 
the  real  estate  and  securities  business.  As  will  be  seen, 
this  commission  resembles  that  of  Houston  in  the  ex- 
perience and  combination  of  the  commission. 

The  most  important  question  as  to  this  new  type 
of  city  government  is  not  so  much  how  it  is  made  as 
what  it  makes.  Do  the  commissioners  actually  fit  to- 
gether and  work  harmoniously?  Do  they  provide  an 
economical  and  efficient  government?  Do  they  com- 
mand the  continued  confidence  of  the  voters?  From 
personal  interviews  with  the  mayors  and  some  of  the 
commissioners  in  three  of  the  four  cities,  and  infor- 
mation with  regard  to  the  fourth,  it  is  safe  to  say 
the  Texas  type  of  commission  workable;  it  has  the 
merits  of  a  board  in  which  there  is  discussion  and 
comparison  of  views;  it  possesses  the  advantages  of  a 


338     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

cabinet  system,  where  the  heads  of  the  departments 
are  all  brought  into  close  relation  with  the  mayor; 
and  it  far  surpasses  the  council  system,  both  in  intelli- 
gence and  dispatch  of  business.  This  success  is  in 
part  due  to  the  flexibility  of  the  system,  due  to  the 
constant  association  of  the  commissioners;  their  of- 
fices lie  side  by  side  and  they  pass  in  and  out  freely. 
Except  in  Houston,  where  the  mayor  has  the  prerog- 
atives of  a  suspensive  veto  and  of  the  appointment 
and  removal  of  subordinates,  the  mayor  is  only  pri- 
mus inter  pares.  Apparently  all  the  commissions  are 
free  from  personal  jealousies.  To  be  sure,  the  labor 
newspaper  of  Houston  declares  that  the  commission 
has  bought  an  automobile  and  that  one  of  the  com- 
missioners literally  (not  politi(;ally)  knifed  a  fellow 
commissioner,  but  these  are  idle  tales.  The  great  ad- 
vantage of  the  system  is  that  it  is  full  of  genuine  dis- 
cussion, and  as  far  removed  from  political  pressure 
and  pull  as  is  possible  among  fallible  human  beings. 
The  point  of  view  of  the  commissions  is  that  they  are 
business  directorates,  only  the  private  corporations  are 
few  where  five  officials  are  constantly  on  duty,  and 
where  each  has  so  much  opportunity  to  learn  some- 
thing of  the  general  needs  of  the  concern.  The  pub- 
lic official  meetings  are  important  as  a  safety  valve  for 
spectators  and  reporters  are  admitted,  petitions  are 
presented  and  votes  are  recorded;  but  the  working 
principle  is  constant  discussion  by  twos,  threes,  and 
fives,  in  which  the  mayor,  as  the  central  figure  brings 
things  to  a  conclusion,  and  by  his  tact  and  good  nature 
keeps  the  machine  from  creaking.     A  great  part  of 


OBSERVATIONS    ON    TEXAS    CITIES 


239 


the  success  of  the  commission  is  due  to  the  easy  in- 
formal relations  between  the  commissioners. 

A  most  important  point  is  the  absence  of  scandals 
or  charges  of  corruption  against  the  commissioners 
in  all  these  cities.  They  seem  to  be  men  of  honesty 
and  to  have  no  desire  to  profit  unfairly  by  their  con- 
nection \\  ith  the  government.  That  this  excellent  con- 
dition cannot  be  wholly  credited  to  the  system  is 
obvious. 

As  to  the  economy  of  the  governments,  there  is, 
as  yet,  not  sufficient  data  of  experience  to  justify  a 
point-blank  statement.  The  object  of  the  Galveston 
government  has  not  been  to  reduce  expenses,  but  to 
apply  larger  sums  than  the  city  has  ever  used  before 
to  pressing  needs ;  and  it  has  been  necessary  to  create 
a  new  burden  of  interest.  But  it  is  a  striking  fact  that 
while  the  tax  valuations  were  cut  down  a  fourth  by 
the  storm,  and  are  gaining  again  slowly,  the  tax  rate 
is  substantially  the  same  as  in  1900.  Galveston  has 
a  big  financial  problem,  and  it  has  been  handled  with 
rare  skill  and  fidelity.  It  is  a  city  in  which  private 
citizens  have  been  accustomed  to  make  great  gifts 
for  private  buildings  and  institutions,  and  the  commis- 
sioners have  shown  the  same  high  public  spirit.  In 
Houston,  the  floating  debt  has  been  about  cleared  up 
in  the  three  years  of  the  commission,  and  the  city  has 
acquired  the  water  works  from  a  private  company. 
It  is  a  city  growing  fast  and  needing  big  public  im- 
provements. The  impression  made  by  contact  with 
the  commissioners  is  of  a  Yankee  energy  and  atten- 
tion to  details.    In  Dallas  and  Fort  Worth  the  govern- 


240     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

ments  have  been  in  operation  only  about  a  year,  but 
the  impression  seems  to  be  that  they  are  going  well; 
certainly  there  is  no  organized  opposition  to  the  com- 
mission among  the  people  who  are  governed  by  it. 
Dallas  has  one  unusual  piece  of  public  property, 
namely,  a  fair  ground,  upon  which  an  annual  fair  is 
held  which  brings  in  an  annual  income  of  $50,000  to 
$100,000.  On  the  face  of  it,  these  commissioners  are 
likely  to  be  more  prudent  and  thrifty  than  the  usual 
city  governments.  In  the  first  place  the  whole  public 
service  (excepting  education)  is  concentrated  into 
four  departments,  which  means  economy  and  avoid- 
ance of  duplications.  The  control  of  the  personnel 
practically  by  the  head  of  each  department,  subject 
to  the  general  determinations  of  the  whole  board,  is 
close  and  effective.  The  Texas  governments  certainly 
make  the  impression  of  being  more  direct  and  to  the 
point  than  those  of  most  cities. 

There  remains  the  vital  question  whether  the  com- 
missions are  likely  to  be  permanent,  and  the  experi- 
ence of  Texas  is  not  long  enough  to  furnish  an  an- 
swer. Galveston  is  the  only  city  in  which  there  has 
been "  an  opportunity  to  reelect  commissioners  more 
than  once,  and  in  Galveston  the  grade  raising  is  not 
yet  completed  and  the  necessary  causeway  to  the  main- 
land is  not  yet  begun :  the  people  are  bound  to  stick 
to  the  commission  till  those  public  works  are  finished. 
On  the  whole  the  argument  that  it  is  un-American  to 
choose  the  same  people  to  office  several  times  in  suc- 
cession does  not  seem  to  be  deeply  felt  in  the  Texan 
cities.     It  must  be  remembered  alwavs   that  Texas 


OBSERVATIONS   ON   TEXAS    CITIES        241 

commissioners  are  not  nonpartisans,  that  they  all  be- 
long to  the  dominant  state  party ;  that  there  is  no  ques- 
tion of  disturbing  a  delicate  balance  of  local  parties; 
and  that  the  state  legislature  keeps  its  hands  off.  Fur- 
thermore, there  is  a  strong  civic  spirit  in  the  com- 
munity which  has  mightily  aided  in  bringing  about  a 
general  state  of  public  feeling  favorable  to  the  com- 
missions. 

Nevertheless,  it  seems  probable  that  after  two  or 
three  terms,  rival  tickets  will  be  set  up  and  attempts 
will  be  made  to  oust  the  present  commissioners;  and 
the  professional  local  politician  is  always  in  wait  to 
demand  that  the  people  shall  rule  by  a  government  of 
checks  and  balances ;  and  the  commission  governments 
can  also  be  overset  by  the  legislature,  which  would 
be  likely  to  respond  to  any  demand  of  the  majorities 
in  the  cities.  Hence  the  future  of  the  commissions 
is  not  assured.  Much  depends  on  their  efficiency. 
The  great  advantage  of  commission  government  is 
that  it  in  a  high  degree  concentrates  responsibility, 
through  and  under  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  free  will, 
the  power  to  choose  the  right  involves  the  power  to 
choose  the  wrong.  So  that  the  ultimate  defense  of 
commission  government,  as  of  every  other  form  of 
government,  is  watchful  public  sentiment.  All  that 
can  be  safely  declared  is  that  the  Texan  commissions 
are  so  far  distinctly  successful  and  are  likely  to  last 
a  considerable  time,  and  perhaps  will  be  permanent. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

RESULTS    IN   DES    MOINES,    CEDAR    RAPIDS,    AND    OTHER 
lOWAN    CITIES 

Equally  satisfactory  results  to  those  attained  in 
Texas  have  been  achieved  in  Des  Moines  and  the 
Other  cities  of  Iowa  which  have  adopted  the  commis- 
sion form.  John  Mac  Vicar,  who  has  had  experience 
under  both  the  old  and  the  new  /orms  of  government, 
having  been  a  mayor  under  the  old  and  a  commis- 
sioner under  the  new,  in  an  address  before  the  Boston 
City  Club,  said  that:  "In  place  of  it  being  unwise 
to  place  the  power  of  tax  levying  and  tax  spending 
in  one  body,  in  Des  IMoine?  it  has  been  demonstrated 
that  it  is  a  wise  thing  to  do  so.  Our  city  council  re- 
•  cently  had  before  it  the  matter  of  a  tax  levy  for  the 
coming  year.  Des  Moines  taxes  are  rather  high,  but 
our  bonded  indebtedness  is  extremely  low,  amounting 
to  about  $1,300,000.  We  pay  cash  for  most  of  our 
improvements.  Our  people  are  quite  as  strenuous  in 
their  opposition  to  increased  taxes  as  any  community 
is  liable  to  be,  and  when  the  council  published  a  state- 
ment that  it  would  be  necessary  to  increase  the  tax 
levy  four  or  five  mills,  a  protest  came  from  the  people. 
The  council  showed  that  the  people  had  voted  this 
242 


RESULTS    IN    lOWAN    CITIES 


243 


additional  tax  levy  themselves.  They  had  voted  two 
mills  for  city  hall  and  two  or  more  mills  for  flood 
protection,  and  the  legislature  had  passed  a  law  re- 
quiring that  the  city  make  a  small  levy  for  a  pension 
fund  for  disabled  firemen,  and  the  council  considered 
that  that  justified  an  advance  in  the  tax  levy.  The 
public  protest  continued,  however,  and  finally  by  vig- 
orous retrenchment  these  improvements  were  pro- 
vided for  and  the  tax  levy  was  not  increased.  It 
appears  to  me  that  had  there  been  a  legislative  body 
to  levy  the  tax  and  an  executive  body  to  spend  the 
money  there  would  have  been  trouble  in  Des  Moines, 
as  there  is  in  Indianapolis  and  Fort  Wayne  under  such 
conditions.  The  executive  body  would  probably  have 
refused  to  make  the  improvements  voted  because  the 
legislative  body  had  not  provided  the  additional  tax 
levy,  and  a  strenuous  endeavor  would  be  made  by 
each  to  shoulder  the  blame  on  the  other,  resulting  in 
the  friction  that  is  so  common  under  these  condi- 
tions. As  it  was,  there  was  no  escaping  responsibility 
by  the  council.  If  the  tax  levy  was  raised  it  was  its 
fault;  if  the  public  improvements  were  not  carried  out 
the  council  would  be  held  accountable." 

Whatever  may  be  the  merits  or  demerits  of  the 
Des  IMoines  plan,  it  has  produced  excellent  results  in 
Des  Moines.  As  Commissioner  MacVicar  points  out, 
it  has  created  a  new,  active,  and  intelligent  citizen- 
.ship.  The  new  spirit  seems  to  pervade  all  kinds  and 
conditions  of  the  community.  It  seems  to  have  made 
over  the  laboring  men  and  labor  organizations,  busi- 
ness men.  business  interests,  and  business  organiza- 


244     CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

tions.  Previous  to  the  advent  of  the  Des  Moines  plan, 
the  community  was  divided  against  itself,  and,  in  spite 
of  the  biblical  admonition  as  to  the  fate  of  a  divided 
house,  the  citizens  marveled  that  with  all  of  their 
natural  advantages  the  city  did  not  progress  and 
prosper.  There  was  an  east  and  west  side  of  one 
river  and  a  north  and  south  side  of  another.  There 
was  a  West  Side  School  District  and  an  East  Side 
School  District.  There  were  seven  wards  and  seven 
councilmen,  besides  two  councilmen-at-large,  all  serv- 
ing for  nominal  salaries,  a  mayor,  a  board  of  public 
works,  named  by  the  mayor  and  subject  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  council,  and  separate  boards  in  charge 
of  the  parks  and  public  library. 

According  to  the  first  annpal  report  of  the  com- 
mission the  new  government  kept  within  the  revenues 
of  the  city,  a  practice  that  had  not  been  followed  by 
the  old  administration  for  years.  At  the  end  of  its 
first  fiscal  year,  the  commission  had  made  a  relatively 
better  financial  showing,  by  approximately  $180,000, 
than  the  preceding  administration  at  the  close  of  its 
last  fiscal  year.  In  the  details  of  administration  in  the 
various  departments,  however,  the  commission  shows 
a  gain  over  the  old  system  in  some  and  a  loss  in 
others. 

During  the  first  year  the  commission  made  a  mate- 
rial increase  in  the  number  of  yards  of  brick  paving 
laid,  but  at  a  somewhat  increased  cost  per  yard  over 
the  preceding  administration.  During  1907,  the  last 
year  under  the  old  government,  46,780  yards  were  put 
down  at  a  cost  of  $82,413.57,   or  $1.80  per  yard. 


RESULTS    IN   lOWAN    CITIES  245 

During  1908,  the  first  year  under  the  commission,  54,- 
603.33  square  yards  were  laid  at  a  total  cost  of  $111,- 
1 78.1 1,  or  $2.03  per  yard,  an  increase  of  23  cents  per 
yard,  or  $1,600. 

Twenty-eight  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty- 
nine  yards  of  asphalt  were  laid  in  1907  at  a  cost  of 
$2.09  per  yard,  or  $57,781.38;  in  1908,  44,302  yards 
were  laid  at  a  cost  of  $2.07  per  yard,  or  $91,993.94, 
a  saving  of  $885. 

Twenty  thousand  and  twenty-one  yards  of  creo- 
sote block  were  laid  in  1907  at  a  total  cost  of  $52,- 
928.02,  and  in  1908,  11,166  yards  were  laid  at  a  cost 
of  $29,871.05,  an  increase  of  about  3  cents  per  yard. 

Twenty  thousand  and  thirty-seven  lineal  feet  of 
curbing  were  constructed  during  1907,  and  during 
1908,  15,335,  ^"<i  the  costs  were  $8,597  ^"^  $6,214, 
respectively,  a  saving  of  approximately  2^  cents  per 
foot  in  favor  of  the  commission.  The  combined  curb 
and  gutter  construction  for  1907  was  33,141  feet, 
and  cost  $11,713.24;  for  1908,  4,195  feet  and  cost 
$2,607.61,  an  increase  of  ^y  cents  per  foot  over  the 
preceding  year.  In  1907,  62,302  feet  of  sewer  were 
built  costing  $105,327.97;  in  1908,  51,755  feet  were 
built  costing  $102,141.70,  an  increase  of  approxi- 
mately 28  cents  per  foot.  The  average  cost  of  all  the 
paving  done  by  the  old  government  in  1907  was  $1.98 
per  square  yard,  while  that  of  the  commission  in  1908 
was  $2.09,  an  increased  cost  of  about  11  cents  per 
yard. 

It  would  appear  from  these  figures  that  the  com- 
mission during  the  first  year  not  only  failed  to  reduce 


246     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

the  cost  of  paving,  but  that,  on  the  whole,  it  con- 
structed its  pavement  at  a  slightly  increased  cost. 
The  same  thing  is  true  in  the  matter  of  sidewalk  con- 
struction. In  1907,  69,259  square  feet  of  brick  and 
13,445  of  cement  walk  were  put  down.  The  contract 
price  on  the  brick  was  7^  cents  and  on  the  cement 
10  ^Sj^  cents.  In  1908,  63,857  square  feet  of  brick  and 
^3'957  of  cement  were  laid,  the  contract  price  for 
brick  being  8^  cents  and  for  the  cement  lof  cents. 

These  figures,  however,  must  be  carefully  weighed 
and  analyzed.  As  the  editor  of  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin Bulletin  ^  points  out  it  must  be  remembered  that 
all  public  improvements  in  Des  Moines  are  let  by 
contract,  and  that  during  1908  there  was  an  increase 
in  labor  costs  as  well  as  in  the^cost  of  materials,  both 
of  which  were  reflected  in  increased  contract  prices. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  will  probably  be  generally  con- 
ceded that  the  paving  materials  were  of  a  distinctly 
better  quality  and  that  specifications  were  more  closely 
complied  with  under  the  commission  than  under  the 
preceding  administration.  Prices  will  always  be 
higher  where  there  is  a  belief  that  specifications  are  to 
be  insisted  upon.  Contractors  were  held  strictly  to 
specifications,  and  all  claims  for  extras,  a  practice 
which  had  grown  into  an  abuse,  were  rejected.  Sev- 
eral carloads  of  inferior  creosote  paving  blocks  were 
rejected  because  they  did  not  come  up  to  the  required 
test.  So  that  taking  all  these  into  consideration — in- 
creased labor  costs  and  contract  prices,  better  mate- 
rial and  closer  conformity  to  specifications — it  is  quite 

'  Ford  H.  McGregor. 


RESULTS   IX    lOWAN   CITIES 


247 


probable  that  the  commission,  even  in  the  matter  of 
these  pnbHc  improvements,  made  a  better  show- 
ing than  the  old  administration,  notwithstanding  the 
apparent  disadvantage  evidenced  by  the  above  fig- 
ures. 

In  Des  Moines  the  success  of  the  commission 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  showing  which  it  can 
make  in  the  department  of  streets  and  public  improve- 
ments, since  the  city  operates  no  public  utilities.  It 
has  no  municipal  water  works  or  public  lighting 
plant,  these  services  being  furnished  by  private  com- 
panies. On  the  other  hand,  street  paving  and  main- 
tenance are  of  unusual  importance,  because  of  the 
unusual  extent  of  improved  streets  within  the  city. 
Des  Moines  has  over  seventy-five  miles  of  paved 
streets — brick,  asphalt,  and  creosote  block — a  larger 
number  in  proportion  to  population  than  any  other 
city  in  the  United  States. 

Being  spread  over  so  large  an  area,  its  sewage 
problem  is  equally  increased.  It  has  over  105  miles 
of  sewerage.  Thus  the  department  of  streets  and 
public  improvements  is  the  most  important  depart- 
ment of  the  city  from  the  business  point  of  view,  and 
the  success  of  commission  will  largely  depend  upon 
the  showing  made  by  this  department. 

In  the  matter  of  public  lighting  the  commission 
made  a  better  showing  than  the  preceding  adminis- 
tration. The  gas  and  electric  service  combined  for 
the  city  during  1907  cost  $66,242.96,  and  during 
1908,  $60,693.99,  making  a  saving  under  the  new 
plan  of  $5,548.97.  In  addition,  71  more  lights  were 
17 


248     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

in  use  in  1908  than  the  year  before.  Electric  arcs, 
2,000  candle  power,  burning  all  night  and  every  night, 
4,000  hours  per  year,  were  $95  and  $75  per  lamp  per 
year  under  the  old  administration,  but  were  reduced 
to  $65  under  the  commission.  The  same  lights  on 
moonlight  schedule,  2,182  hours  per  year,  were  $65 
per  year  in  1907,  and  $65  per  year  in  1908;  but  in  the 
latter  year  burned  all  night  and  every  night,  4,000 
hours  per  year.  The  rate  of  32  candle  power  incan- 
descents  on  an  all-night  schedule  was  reduced  from 
$24  per  year  to  $17.04.  The  commission  secured  the 
same  rate  for  an  all-night  schedule,  4,000  hours  per 
year,  as  the  old  administration  did  for  a  moonlight 
schedule  of  2,182  hours  per  year.  The  gas  rate  was 
reduced  from  ^22  per  year  to  $17. 

The  total  cost  of  caring  for  the  dumps  in  1907 
and  1908  was  exactly  the  same,  $2,160,  but  in  1908, 
57,159  loads  of  refuse  were  received  as  against  44,637 
in  1907.  The  average  cost  of  cleaning  catch  basins 
was  lowered  from  $1.40  in  1907  to  $1.05  in  1908. 
The  total  for  this  work  in  1907  was  $3,190.70,  and 
in  1908,  $4,949.05,  2,272  being  cleaned  in  1907  and 
4,682  in  1908.  The  wages  of  men  with  teams  were 
increased  from  $3.50  to  $4.50  per  day,  and  those  of 
day  laborers  from  $2  to  $2.25. 

The  planning  of  a  civic  center  and  the  improve- 
ment of  the  river  banks  connected  with  it  have  been 
the  most  striking  improvements  made  by  the  commis- 
sion. These  are  so  planned  that  there  will  be  a  group- 
ing of  public  buildings  in  two  blocks  on  each  side  of 
the  river.    The  public  library,  new  federal  building,  and 


RESULTS    IN    lOWAN    CITIES 


249 


coliseum  stand  on  one  side  and  the  city  hall,  now  in 
process  of  construction,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river.  The  commission  is  now  parking  both  river 
banks,  thus  making  a  beautiful  civic  center  and  cen- 
tral park,  of  a  naturally  beautiful  section  formerly 
an  eyesore  covered  with  tumble-down  shanties  and 
river  debris. 

It  seems  to  be  the  uniform  opinion  of  business 
men  in  Des  Moines  that  the  streets  have  been  better 
cleaned  and  the  general  tone  of  municipal  service  im- 
proved under  the  commission  during  its  first  year.  It 
is  significant  in  this  connection  to  note  that,  whereas 
formerly  Des  Moines  was  divided  into  East  and  West 
Des  ]\Ioines,  both  sides  have  been  united  in  support 
of  the  commission. 

In  the  matter  of  salaries  the  commission  appears 
to  have  slightly  increased  the  pay  roll  over  that  of 
1907.  The  report  of  the  auditor  shows  that  in  1907 
the  roll  was  approximately  $256,570,  as  compared 
with  $262,475  for  1908,  an  increase  of  approximately 
$5'905-  As  explained  by  the  auditor  in  his  report, 
these  figures  do  not  represent  the  complete  list  of  sal- 
aries paid,  mainly  for  the  reason  that  the  two  do  not 
cover  exactly  the  same  length  of  time,  and  that  there 
is  no  record  of  the  salaries  paid  in  some  of  the  dif- 
ferent departments  which  were  under  different  con- 
trol prior  to  April  6,  1908.  These  increases  were 
made  in  the  departments  of  public  affairs,  public 
safety,  and  finance  and  revenue.  The  departments  of 
parks  and  public  property,  and  streets  and  public  im- 
provements, made  quite  substantial  reductions.     The 


250 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 


total  salaries  of  the  police  department  were  decreased, 
but  those  of  the  fire  department  were  increased. 

The  following  comparative  statement  prepared  by 
the  city  auditor  shows  the  relative  standing  of  the 
working  funds  for  fiscal  1907  and  1908: 

Cash  on  hand,  April  i,  1907 . .      $70,396 .  63 
Claims  outstanding 5S»o85 .  83 

Excess  cash  over  claims $15,310.80 

Cash  on  hand,  April  i,  1908..        $72,790. 11 
Claims  outstanding 191,989.93 

Excess  claims  over  cash 1 19,199 .  82 

Loss,  1907 $134,510.62 

Claims  outstanding,  April  i, 

1908 $191,989 .  93 

Claims  paid  by  bond  issue. ...      1 75,616 .  07 
Claims  that  were  not  paid  by    

bond  issue. 16,373.86 

Cash  on  hand,  April  i,  1908 . .  72,790. 11 

Excess  cash  over  claims  that 

were  not  paid  by  bond  issue  $56,416 .  25 

Cash  on  hand,  April  i,  1909.  .    $164,352.05 
Claims  outstanding 59,496. 77 

Excess  cash  over  claims $104,855 .  28 

Gain,  1908 48,439.03 

Gain,  1908  over  1907 $182,949  •  65 

An  examination  of  this  statement  shows  that 
the  old  administration  at  the  close  of  its  fiscal  year 
left  a  deficit  of  $119,199.82.  This  the  commission 
met  largely  by  the  issue  of  bonds,  in  order  that 
it  might  not  be  handicapped  by  a  deficit  at  the  be- 


RESULTS    IN   lOWAN   CITIES 


251 


ginning.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  commission 
had  an  excess  of  cash  over  claims  of  $104,855.28,  a 
gain  during  the  year  of  $48,439.03.  In  other  words, 
instead  of  running  behind  during  the  year  $119,- 
199.82,  as  the  previous  administration  had  done, 
it  ran  ahead  $48,439.03,  thus  making  a  relative 
saving  over  the  previous  administration  of  $182,- 
949.65.1 

In  a  somewhat  different  way  the  Kansas  City  Star, 
in  its  pamphlet  already  alluded  to,  states  the  advan- 
tages accruing  from  the  introduction  of  commission 
government  in  Des  Moines.     Here  they  are : 

Des  Moines  has  been  operating  under  the  commis- 
sion plan  for  more  than  a  year,  and  that  city  has  a 
population  of  100,000.  Here  are  some  of  the  results 
of  the  first  year  of  the  new  rule  in  that  city : 

The  police  force  taken  out  of  politics,  reorganized, 
increased,  and  kept  to  a  higher  standard  of  efficiency 
than  ever  before.  The  same  improvement  has  been 
made  in  the  fire  department. 

The  streets  are  in  better  condition  as  to  repairs; 
are  cleaner  and  better  lighted ;  more  paving  and  more 
sidewalks  built  than  ever  before. 

All  Des  Moines  streets  were  renamed  and  neat 
street  signs  placed  at  every  corner. 

Water  rates  reduced  twenty  per  cent. 

Wages  of  day  laborers  increased  to  $2.25  and 
teamsters  to  $4.50  for  an  eight-hour  day. 

An  arch  cement  bridge  eighty  feet  wide  built 
across  the  Des  Moines  river  at  a  cost  of  $150,000, 
and  paid  for  without  a  bond  issue. 

The  sanitary  conditions  improved. 

*  See  Bulletin,  University  of  Wisconsin  Extension  Division. 


252 


CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


Politics  entirely  eliminated  from  every  department 
of  the  city. 

All  complaints  of  citizens  for  temporary  repairs 
in  sidewalks,  streets,  sewers,  etc.,  attended  to  the  same 
day  they  are  received. 

Seventy-one  more  arc  lights  established  on  the 
streets  and  634  lights  that  formerly  burned  on  the 
"  moonlight  schedule,"  now  burn  every  night  at  an 
expense  of  almost  $12,000  less  than  the  old  rate. 

And  all  this  improvement  in  Des  Moines  city  gov- 
ernment has  been  made  at  a  saving  to  the  taxpayers 
of  more  than  $224,000  in  a  year,  and  in  addition  the 
tax  levy  for  next  year  has  been  reduced  almost  three 
mills. 

In  the  words  of  the  Hon.  Lafayette  Young,  former 
United  States  Senator  from  Iowa  (and  in  reading 
his  words  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  is  not  a 
"  progressive  "  in  politics)  :  "  One  good  feature  of  the 
commission  plan  is  the  doing  away  of  partisan  politics 
in  municipal  affairs.  What  does  it  matter  whether 
a  man  is  a  Democrat  or  Republican  when  it  comes  to 
the  government  of  a  city?  Political  grafting  is  un- 
known under  the  commission  plan  of  city  govern- 
ment. The  nonpartisan  primary  affords  a  fine  ex- 
ample of  an  honest  way  of  making  nominations. 

"  Under  the  old  form  of  city  government  progress 
had  been  difficult  because  of  divided  responsibility  in 
regard  to  the  receipt  or  expenditure  of  money.  There 
is  no  reason  why  a  city  like  Chicago  should  not  be 
governed  by  five  men,  just  as  the  affairs  of  a  great 
railroad  corporation  are  governed  by  an  executive 
committee  of  three  or  five. 


RESULTS    IN    lOWAN    CITIES 


253 


"  There  is  not  a  railroad  in  the  United  States  of 
any  consequence  which  could  be  operated  successfully 
under  the  slipshod  methods  which  characterize  the 
average  city  government.  Des  Moines  has  been  under 
the  commission  form  of  government  nearly  three 
years,  and  has  prospered.  We  are  building  a  fine 
municipal  structure,  in  which  there  is  no  city  hall. 

"  It  looks  like  a  national  bank. 

"  There  is  one  thing  about  making  public  improve- 
ments under  the  commission  form  of  government.  It 
is  possible  to  transact  business.  Delays  are  unknown. 
The  new  form  of  government  is  the  instrument  with 
which  business  can  be  transacted.  It  pleases  the  peo- 
ple. It  gives  the  people  more  and  more  direct  power. 
We  have  the  recall  to  use  in  extreme  cases.  We  have 
the  initiative  and  referendum.  If  a  councilman  is 
going  wrong  there  ought  to  be  some  way  of  taking 
him  out  of  office  without  being  compelled  to  indict 
him."  1 

There  is  another  advantage  of  the  commission 
government  which  the  Des  Moines  Capital  has  very 
forcibly  pointed  out.^  It  asks  the  question :  "  If  Des 
[Moines  within  the  short  space  of  two  years  has  be- 
come the  most  talked  about  and  most  written  about 
town  on  the  continent,  what  advantage  will  this  pub- 
licity bring  to  it  during  the  next  twenty  years?  "  The 
Capital  then  proceeds  to  answer  its  question  in  this 
fashion : 

*  For  a  fiill  and  sympathetic  account  of  the  Des  Moines  experi- 
ment, see  John  J.  Hamilton's  "  The  Dethronement  of  the  City 
Boss,"  published  by  Funk  and  Wagnalls  (1910). 

'  See  issue  of  September  12,  1910. 


254 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


"If  the  men  who  framed  the  law  now  generally 
known  as  '  the  Des  Moines  plan  '  had  been  actuated 
by  the  sole  purpose  of  advertising  their  city  they 
couldn't  have  gone  about  it  in  a  better  way.  Even 
if  the  new  plan  had  not  given  Des  Moines  the  best 
municipal  government  of  any  city  in  the  country,  it 
would  have  been  worth  while  merely  as  an  advertising 
medium. 

"  This  fact  is  apparent  to  anyone  who  has  an  op- 
portunity to  know  to  what  an  extent  Des  Moines  is 
being  talked  about  and  written  about  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land.  It  is  testified  to  by 
dozens  of  letters  that  reacTi  Des  Moines  every  day 
asking  for  information  concerning  the  new  plan  of 
government  and  its  operation;  it  is  testified  to  by  thou- 
sands of  newspaper  clippings  gathered  from  all  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  in  which  the 
name  '  Des  Moines  '  stands  forth  in  big,  bold  letters. 

"  Like  wildfire  the  idea  is  spreading  throughout 
the  country.  There  is  not  a  state  in  the  Union  which 
it  has  not  reached.  It  has  leaped  across  the  border 
into  Canada,  and  half  a  dozen  of  the  most  important 
cities  of  the  Dominion  are  on  the  verge  of  accepting 
the  Des  Moines  theory  of  municipal  government. 
Even  the  ocean  has  failed  to  check  its  spread  and 
Honolulu  is  discussing  the  benefits  and  disadvantages 
of  government  by  commission,  along  with  Fort  Madi- 
son, la.  Although  the  commission  idea  originated 
in  the  balmy  climate  of  sunny  Texas,  it  thrives  equally 
well  in  a  cold  climate,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  interest 
being  shown  in  several  Alaskan  towns. 


RESULTS   IN    lOWAN    CITIES  255 

"  All  the  money  which  the  Greater  Des  Moines 
Committee  could  raise  in  twenty  years  to  advertise 
Des  Moines  could  not  buy  the  printed  space  which 
has  been  devoted  to  the  city's  experiment  with  its  new 
form  of  government  during  the  past  two  years.  And 
now  when  the  committee  has  begun  to  advertise  in 
the  great  national  magazines,  the  advantages  of  Des 
Moines  as  a  place  in  which  to  live  and  do  business,  it 
is  not  calling  attention  to  an  unknown  article.  The 
country  has  already  heard  of  Des  Moines.  The  seed 
will  fall  on  fertile  soil.  Magazine  readers  who  have 
already  heard  what  other  people  think  of  Des  Moines, 
will  want  to  see  what  she  has  to  say  for  herself. 

"  And  this  is  only  the  beginning.  Every  day  an- 
other city  takes  up  the  discussion  of  government  by 
commission.  Every  day  brings  more  inquiries  about 
'  how  we  do  things  in  Des  Moines.'  Every  day  an- 
other high  school  or  college  selects  the  Des  Moines 
plan  as  a  question  for  debate.  If  to-day  Des  Moines 
is  attracting  more  attention  than  any  other  city  on 
the  continent,  what  benefits  can  it  not  hope  to  realize 
in  five  years,  ten  years,  twenty  years?  What  will  be 
the  position  of  Des  Moines  when  half  the  cities  in  the 
country  are  operating  under  its  system  of  govern- 
ment?" 

What  is  here  said  about  Des  Moines  is  equally 
true  of  Galveston.  These  two  cities  have  found  their 
civic  achievements  to  be  their  most  effective  adver- 
tisements. 

Charles  D.  Huston,  formerly  a  member  of  the 
Cedar  Rapids  commission,  in  an  address  at  the  1908 


256     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

annual  meeting  of  the  Iowa  League  of  Municipalities, 
spoke  of  his  experience  under  the  old  and  new  systems. 
He  had  had  eight  years  of  continuous  service  as  an 
official  under  the  old  charter  government,  four  years 
as  alderman,  and  four  years  as  mayor,  and  thus  was 
able  to  speak  with  full  knowledge  of  both  systems. 

While  the  greater  portion  of  the  address  was  de- 
voted to  an  exposition  of  the  theory  and  principles  of 
commission  government,  he  presented  a  brief  summary 
of  the  city's  financial  transactions  under  the  new  gov- 
ernment which  was  significant.  He  said :  "  The  city's 
revenues  (not  including  special  assessments)  are  ap- 
proximately $385,000  per  annum.  From  January  i  to 
April  6,  1908,  three  months  and  six  days  under  the 
old  plan,  there  was  paid  out  of  these  revenues  the 
sum  of  $119,639.12,  which  does  not  include  $5,000 
expended  by  park  commissioners  during  the  same  pe- 
riod. This  is  almost  $40,000  per  month,  which  might 
be  termed  as  operating  expenses  only,  it  being  a  season 
of  the  year  when  no  improvements  were  being  made 
and  when  no  bonds  or  interest  fell  due.  Under  the 
commission  plan  in  five  months  (lacking  six  days) 
there  was  expended  a  little  less  than  $152,000,  or  less 
than  $31,000  per  month,  and  this  included  payment 
of  $49,600  in  bonds  and  interest,  all  park  expendi- 
tures, and  $2,500  in  purchase  money  for  additional 
property.  Nor  was  this  all,  as  the  police  department 
was  augmented  by  the  addition  of  five  patrolmen,  the 
fire  department  stables  were  replenished,  city  buildings 
put  in  repair  and  painted,  many  lights  added,  and  the 
heaviest  work  of  the  year  in  street  cleaning,  grading, 


RESULTS   IN   lOWAN   CITIES  257 

etc.,  was  on.  Yet  the  expenses  were  about  $9,000 
less  per  month  than  they  had  run  when  no  betterments 
were  being  made."  ^ 

On  September  i,  1908,  there  was  a  cash  balance 
in  the  city  treasurer's  hands  of  $113,078.92,  which, 
with  the  revenues  later  collected,  permitted  the  closing 
of  the  fiscal  year  with  a  handsome  balance.  The  city, 
he  added,  had  no  unpaid  bills,  the  commission  having 
at  the  outset  made  a  rule  that  all  bills,  except  those 
for  labor,  should  be  discounted  two  per  cent  in  ten 
days.  "  Interest  amounting  to  about  $2,000  per  an- 
num will  be  collected  on  city  funds  during  the  last 
nine  months  of  the  year,  and  in  three  months  alone 
the  interest  amounted  to  $1,000  on  an  even  $100,000, 
for  which  a  time  certificate  was  taken.  Heretofore 
the  interest  turned  in  amounted  at  best  to  about  $400 
per  annum.  The  city  of  Cedar  Rapids  has  under  con- 
struction at  the  present  time  the  largest  amount  of 
brick  paving,  macadam  road  building,  and  water-pipe 
extension  in  her  history,  and  soon  will  let  a  contract 
for  the  construction  of  a  second  concrete  bridge  over 
the  Cedar  River,  which  will  cost  approximately  $75,- 
000,  and  other  bridges  of  less  importance,  and  there 
will  be  no  increase  in  taxes  to  pay  the  bills."  Such  a 
record,  Mr.  Huston  submits,  is  a  pretty  good  test  of 
civic  government. 

One  other  bit  of  testimony  for  the  commission 
plan,  based  on  actual  experience,  should  be  quoted 
from  the  address  of  Commissioner  Huston.  "  The  new 
form  of  government,"  he  said,  "  has  awakened  more 

*  Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  Vol.  XXV,  No.  18. 


258      CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

civic  spirit  in  Cedar  Rapids  than  was  ever  before 
known  there.  The  plan  is  giving  us  a  new  Cedar 
Rapids.  Men  and  women  consult  the  members  on  a 
hundred  things,  seemingly  trivial  as  a  single  proposi- 
tion, yet  important  in  the  civil  development  as  a 
whole,  which  in  the  days  of  the  old  plan  would  not 
have  been  considered  worthy  of  attention.  These 
matters,  both  great  and  small,  receive  prompt  atten- 
tion— so  prompt,  indeed,  that  men  of  years  of  expe- 
rience under  the  old  plan  are  really  dazed  by  the  sud- 
denness of  action  at  times." 

There  has  been  another  chapter  in  Cedar  Rapids 
experience  not  nearly  so  pleasing.  It  can  perhaps  best 
be  set  forth  in  the  words  of  a  resident  who  is  deeply 
interested  in  the  cause  of  better  government  generally 
and  of  commission  government  particularly. 

"  Cedar  Rapids  has  not  suffered  any  such  loss  as 

you  speak  of,  the shortage  being  about  $i,6oo, 

all  of  which  has  been  made  good  by  some  friends  and 
relatives  of  Mr.  .  Cedar  Rapids,  in  my  opin- 
ion, has  been  somewhat  unfortunate  recently  in  the 
selection  of  officials  under  the  commission  plan.  I 
hailed  the  adoption  of  the  commission  plan  with  pleas- 
ure, holding  that  partisan  politics  would  be  eliminated 
and  that  the  city's  affairs  would  be  conducted  in  a 
businesslike  manner.  I  think  we  made  some  very 
material  progress  for  a  considerable  time.  Our  mayor 
was  a  generous  soul,  but  lacked  the  firmness  to  say 
*  No  '  to  many  little  schemes  which  I  am  sure  event- 
ually caused  the  downfall  of  Mr.  ,  and  weak- 
ened confidence  in  the  mayor,  past  and  present,  and 


RESULTS    IN    lOWAN    CITIES 


259 


has  caused  some  revolt  against  the  plan.  The  first 
report,  January  i,  1909,  showed  that  we  had  kept 
within  our  income  in  the  lighting  department  and 
given  much  greater  and  better  service  than  ever  be- 
fore; that  of  the  bridge  fund,  amounting  to  about 
$15,000,  we  had  spent  less  than  $500;  that  at  the  close 
of  the  year  there  was  a  credit  in  the  public  improve- 
ment fund  of  $15,071.50;  that  in  the  streets  and 
walks  fund  the  balance  to  its  credit  was  $7,246.48. 
The  streets  were  never  kept  fcetter  or  a  greater  amount 
of  permanent  work  done — but  these  credits  w^ere  en- 
tirely w'iped  out  to  make  good  the  great  deficits  in 
the  park  and  other  departments  which  seemed  to  us 
to  be  running  riot  as  to  expenditures  and  for  W'hich 
there  was  practically  nothing  to  show.  Long  before 
the  close  of  the  year  the  mayor  was  warned  that  these 
departments  were  living  beyond  their  means  and 
pleaded  with  to  *  call  a  halt '  to  save  the  credit  of  the 
city  and  his  own  reputation  as  an  executive.  Of  course 
he  promised,  but  that  was  the  end  of  it. 

"  I  never  knew^  until  very  recently  that  Mr. 

was  short  as  city  clerk,  he  coming  into  the  commission 
from  the  clerkship  in  1908.  The  mayor  and  the 
chairman  of  the  finance  committee  w^ere  appointed  to 
settle  with  outgoing  officers;  they  kept  the  matter 
wholly  to  themselves,  and  as  it  now  transpires,  gave 

Mr.  from  April  i  to  May  22,  19 — ,  to  settle 

his  account.     Of  course  these  two,  being  in  possession 

of  Mr.  's  secret,  the  latter  never  was  a  free 

agent,  and  these  men  knowing  this,  invariably  voted 
with  Mr,  — for  what  I  have  always  considered 


26o      CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

trivial  little  '  jobs  '  for  the  benefit  of  political  huck- 
sters and  not  in  the  interests  of  the  public,  jobs  engi- 
neered to  give  a  little  *  political  sustenance  '  to  ques- 
tionable characters.  That  the  mayor  seemed  to  lack 
that  fine  discrimination  necessary  to  a  successful  chief 
executive  is  best  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  he  pur- 
chased from  the  head  of  the  department  of  public 
safety  a  fine  fire  team  that  had  run  away  once,  for 
the  sum  of  $200,  and  which  as  they  stand  on  our 
streets  to-day  are  worth  $400  and  which  cost  $450 
or  $500 — sold  and  purchased  without  any  authoriza- 
tion or  record  of  any  kind  save  the  taking  of  a  receipt 
from  the  treasurer  of  the  city  when  the  head  of  the 
department  turned  in  the  money.  The  mayor  was 
pleaded  with  to  turn  the  team  back  and  not  destroy 
himself  and  his  administration  from  which  the  people 
expected  so  much,  and  though  he  would  not  agree  to  do 
this,  he  did  promise  that  such  things  as  were  referred 
to  would  not  occur  again.  Then  the  mayor  was  shot 
and  finally  died,  and  his  successor  did  just  as  many  and 
as  strange  things  as  his  predecessor.  The ex- 
posure came  through  the  following  incident :  Some 
time  last  year introduced  a  resolution  author- 
izing the  purchase  of  a  bull  buffalo  for  the  park  zoo. 
He  went  to  Keota  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  one  that 
was  for  sale.  On  his  return  he  reported  that  he  had 
bargained  for  the  animal,  but  that  the  owner  would 
not  deliver  him  until  May  i,   19 10,  as  he  desired  to 

use  him  in  his  herd.     also  stated  that  as  the 

park  season  was  about  to  close  it  would  be  better, 
anyway,  to  leave  it  there  until  spring,  even  though 


RESULTS    IN    10 WAN    CITIES  261 

he  had  bargained  for  it.  But  in  June  it  was  discov- 
ered there  was  no  buffalo,  also  that  the  mayor  had 

drawn  the  warrant  for  the  purchase  money  to 

and  that  the  warrant  had  been  cashed.  Even  the 
mayor  seemed  to  have  lost  sight  of  warrant,  buffalo, 
and  all  until  the  matter  was  uncovered  by  the  new 
chairman  of  finance,  and  then  the  explosion  came  that 
is  not  over  yet. 

"  As    I    have    before    said,    I    knew    nothing   of 

's  shortage  until  the  recent  exposure;  neither 

was  I  aware  that  the  mayor  was  drawing  his  warrants 
instead  of  their  being  payable  to  those  who  had  the 
stock  or  goods  to  sell. 

"  No,  the  commission  plan  is  not  a  failure  in  Cedar 
Rapids — it  has  simply  lacked  a  proper  application. 
With  good  men  of  reasonable  ability  and  an  earnest 
desire  to  be  of  service  to  the  city  it  would  prove  very 
practical." 

An  incident,  which  probably  better  illustrates  the 
efficiency  of  the  new  plan  over  the  old  in  the  matter 
of  administration,  is  that  connected  w'ith  bridge  con- 
struction in  Cedar  Rapids.  The  city  had  long  been  in 
need  of  three  bridges  across  the  Cedar  river,  one  of 
■W'hich  was  much  more  needed  than  the  other  two. 
The  proposition  of  building  this  one  bridge  was  re- 
peatedly brought  up  in  the  old  council,  but  each  time 
the  aldermen  from  the  wards  in  which  the  other  two 
bridges  were  needed  would  immediately  bring  up  the 
proposition  of  building  the  other  two  bridges  also. 
The  alignment  of  the  ward  aldermen  was  such  that 
the  council  could  not  order  the  construction  of  any  one 


262      CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

bridge  without  at  the  same  time  ordering-  the  construc- 
tion of  all  three.  Finally,  the  question  of  a  bond  issue 
to  build  all  three  was  submitted  to  popular  vote,  but 
was  voted  down  by  the  people,  who  were  opposed  to  so 
large  an  issue  at  one  time.  In  this  way,  through  log- 
rolling and  wire-pulling  in  the  old  council,  the  con- 
struction of  all  three  bridges  was  delayed  for  years, 
the  aldermen  in  each  ward  refusing  to  yield  precedence 
to  any  other  ward.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  com- 
mission on  coming  into  control  was  to  order  the  con- 
struction of  the  bridge  most  needed.  The  bonds  were 
voted  and  the  bridge  is  now  completed.  The  commis- 
sion is  now  preparing  to  build  the  second  one.^ 

The  results  in  Keokuk  have  been  highly  satis- 
factory. The  city  was  formerly  a  special  charter  city, 
and  as  such  levied  its  taxes  in  the  spring  and  collected 
them  the  same  year.  The  commissioners  levied  the 
usual  tax  of  forty  mills  on  one- fourth  valuation  and 
agreed  among  themselves  to  pay  off  the  floating  in- 
debtedness of  the  city  and  the  running  expenses  of 
the  city  for  the  current  year  without  overdrawing. 
These  taxes  were  ordinarily  not  paid  until  August  and 
September.  The  public-improvement  commissioner 
asked  the  people  to  come  to  his  assistance  and  pay  the 
taxes  in  May,  so  as  to  provide  funds  with  which  to 
carry  on  the  government.  Such  was  the  confidence 
of  the  citizens  in  their  commissioners  that  by  July  i 
over  forty  per  cent  of  the  levy  had  been  paid,  and  at 
that  date  the  floating  indebtedness  had  been  wiped 
out. 

*  University  of  Wisconsin  Extension  Bulletin. 


RESULTS    IN    lOWAN    CITIES  263 

It  had  been  the  custom  of  former  councils  to  bor- 
row from  $25,000  to  $30,000  to  carry  them  over  from 
the  beginning  of  the  council  year  to  the  last  of  August 
and  pay  five  per  cent  interest  on  it.  The  present  coun- 
cil has  not  borrowed  a  cent,  and  by  arrangement  with 
the  city  depository  has  obtained  interest  on  the  net 
daily  balance,  amounting  at  the  present  time  to 
$217.79. 

The  city  owns  about  twenty  acres  along  the  water 
front,  which  is  rented  to  business  firms.  Formerly, 
part  of  these  renters  paid  their  rent  and  part  did  not. 
Some  had  not  paid  for  five  years.  These  rents  are. 
now  all  collected  up  to  date.  So  with  the  different  city 
licenses.  They  were  only  partially  paid.  They  are  now 
all  paid  in  advance.  The  Superior  Court  up  to  Septem- 
ber, 1909,  collected  $171.58,  and  this  was  considered  a 
heavy  collection  for  that  time ;  its  receipts  for  the  previ- 
ous five  or  six  years  having  averaged  between  $10  and 
$15  per  month.  Its  receipts  for  half  of  April,  May, 
June,  July,  and  August  of  this  year  were  $572.55, 
an  increase  of  333  per  cent.  There  was  no  increase 
in  crime,  but  there  was  a  businesslike  collection  of 
costs. 

In  regard  to  expenditures,  the  commission  form 
of  government  costs  more  for  official  salaries.  The 
increase  in  Keokuk  was  from  $900  a  month  to  $1,300 
a  month.  In  spite  of  this  increase,  however,  the  ex- 
penditures from  the  general  fund  from  which  they 
were  taken  decreased  from  $27,500  in  1909  to  $15,- 
000  in  191  o.  The  old  council  should  be  given  a  credit 
of  $8,000  expended  in  taking  up  time  warrants.  But 
18 


264      CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

this  still  leaves  the  commission  government  $4,000  to 
the  good. 

The  principal  reason  for  the  success  of  the  com- 
mission form  of  government  in  Keokuk,  aside  from 
the  advantage  of  a  business  administration,  has  been 
the  confidence  which  the  general  public  has  that  its 
government  is  working  for  the  best  interest  of  every 
citizen.  This  has  been  shown  by  the  way  in  which 
they  advance  taxes  and  by  the  cordial  support  which 
they  have  given  to  every  move  of  the  government.^ 

Under  the  former  administration  there  were  a 
number  of  people  who  received  large  compensation 
for  certain  services  which  they  rendered  the  city.  The 
commission  stopped  this.  They  not  only  reduced  the 
compensation,  but  whenever  the  work  was  unneces- 
sary, stopped  it.  The  persons  losing  this  income  have 
naturally  not  been  cordial  to  the  administration,  and 
have  looked  for  a  chance  to  discredit  it. 

Each  commissioner  has  abandoned  his  private 
business  and  devotes  his  entire  time  to  the  business 
of  the  city.  The  council  tries  to  get  one  hundred  cents 
of  value  for  every  dollar  of  the  city's  money.  It  hopes 
to  have  a  balance  remaining  in  every  city  fund  at  the 
end  of  the  fiscal  year,  and  from  present  indications  its 
hope  will  be  fulfilled.  It  is  trying  to  give  the  city  of 
Keokuk  a  better  administration  than  it  has  ever  had 
and  practically  all  of  the  citizens,  except  those  whose 
perquisites  are  cut  off,  state  that  it  is  succeeding. 

*  See  Des  Moines  Register,  September  25,  1910. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

RESULTS    IN    MEMPHIS    AND    OTHER    CITIES 

Memphis  is  the  largest  city  that  has  so  far  tried 
the  commission  form  of  government  for  over  a  year, 
and  the  results  there  seem  to  have  been  apparently  sat- 
isfactory both  to  the  official  and  unofficial  public, 
although  there  are  not  wanting  those  who  are  disposed 
to  wait  longer  before  pronouncing  a  judgment  favor- 
able to  the  system.  In  the  matter  of  tangible  results 
the  following  sumrhary  gives  some  idea  of  how  active 
and  effective  the  commission  has  been  during  the  first 
year  (1910)  of  its  activities.    It  has 

Constructed  30.6  miles  of  street  pavement  and  par- 
tially completed  9.60  miles  more; 

Laid  52.67  miles  of  five- foot  sidewalks; 

Laid  34.93  miles  of  sanitary  sewers; 

Laid  4.34  miles  of  storm  sewers; 

Constructed  3.18  miles  of  culverts; 

Reduced  tax  rate  to  $1.75,  the  lowest  in  sixteen 
years ; 

By  a  trade  with  the  banks  (receiving  three  and  a 
half  per  cent  on  deposits  and  paying  but  four  per 
cent  on  overdraughts),  from  $12,000  to  $13,000  were 

265 


266      CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

saved  over  the  old  system  of  paying  five  per  cent  for 
overdraughts  and  receiving  nothing  for  deposits; 

Collected  in  pole  rentals,  previously  unsuccessfully 
tried,  to  the  amount  of  $7,474.60; 

By  taking  over  the  collection  of  city  taxes  from 
the  county  trustee,  at  least  $10,000  annually  will  be 
saved ; 

Erected  a  splendid  police  station  building; 

Erected  a  mounted  police  station  for  the  protec- 
tion of  suburban  residents; 

Increased  the  equipments  and  facilities  of  all  de- 
partments ; 

Materially  increased  the  collections  in  all  depart- 
ments ; 

Gave  the  city  a  topographical  survey; 

Removed  useless  poles  and  compelled  the  joint  oc- 
cupation of  others; 

Materially  added  to  the  lighting  of  the  city ; 

Purchased  a  site  for  a  hospital  for  communicable 
diseases,  to  be  erected  this  year; 

Secured  through  the  legislature  the  passage  of  the 
act  permitting  Memphis  to  issue  $150,000  of  normal 
school  bonds,  thereby  rendering  certain  immediate 
work  upon  this  important  educational  institution; 

Completely  inventoried  all  city  stock  and  equip- 
ment, discarded  worthless  animals  and  secured  new 
ones,  painted  and  repaired  all  vehicles  and  housed 
them  from  the  weather; 

Saved  many  thousands  of  dollars  by  the  creation 
of  the  office  of  purchasing  agent,  thus  doing  away 
with  careless  buying ; 


MEMPHIS    AND    OTHER    CITIES  267 

•  In  the  various  branches  of  the  city  engineering 
department  the  sum  of  $1,364,865.95  \vas  expended, 
ahnost  $300,000  more  than  in  1909,  which  previously- 
held  the  high  record  mark.^ 

Prior  to  the  Commission's  administration  the 
yearly  average  of  delinquent  taxes  ran  from  $60,- 
000  to  $100,000,  while  taxes  collected  each  year  on 
previous  delinquencies  brought  this  amount  down  to 
$20,000  or  $25,000,  but  in  that  respect  budget  ex- 
pectations were  usually  disappointed.  In  19 10,  the 
first  year  of  the  commission  government,  the  delin- 
quent taxes  amounted  to  $60,907.02,  and  for  the  first 
time  in  the  city's  history  the  taxes  collected  from 
delinquents  amounted  to  $62,681.34,  or  $1,774.32  over 
the  full  budget  allowance.  This  big  delinquent  tax 
collection  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  city  employed 
one  of  the  assistant  city  attorneys  to  look  after  the 
matter.  This  forced  settlement  of  a  great  many  un- 
paid taxes.  In  addition,  a  series  of  letters  was  sent 
out  to  all  who  had  not  paid,  calling  their  attention  to 
the  interest  and  penalties  attached,  so  that  a  great 
many  realized  it  would  be  cheaper  to  settle  than  to 
hold  out  any  longer. 

]\Iayor  Crump  reports  that  the  administration  had 
secured  the  removal  of  the  Southern  tracks  across 
Adams  Avenue,  which  had  been  an  eyesore  for  many 
years  and  had  remained  despite  all  efforts  of  previous 
administrations,  and  that  it  had  secured  the  actual 
construction  of  needed  subways;  and  the  construction 
of  a  cross-town  line,  which  the  street  railway  company 

1  See  first  annual  report  of  the  Commissioneis,  January,  191 1. 


268      CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

has  partly  built,  and  promises  to  complete  early  in  the 
spring. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  achievement  has  been  in  the 
acquisition  of  subways.  For  more  than  ten  years  ef- 
forts had  been  made  by  different  administrations  to 
secure  them,  and  because  of  the  many  fatalities  at 
grade  crossing,  the  press  and  people  alike  clamored 
for  something  to  be  done.  This  administration,  by 
proceeding  upon  the  basis  that  calm  and  deliberate 
conference  with  railroad  officials  would  be  more 
effective  than  rampant  newspaper  interviews,  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  an  agreement,  and  the  results  are 
now  being  made  manifest.^ 

The  year's  work  in  the  office  of  the  building  in- 
spector has  been  especially  directed  toward  the  re- 
moval of  old  "  shacks  "  and  other  disreputable  build- 
ings. The  commissioners  have  stood  steadily  behind 
the  inspector  in  this  work,  and  it  has  resulted  not 
only  in  the  entire  disappearance  of  these  municipal 
eyesores,  but  in  most  instances  in  the  construction  of 
modern  buildings,  the  ground  being  too  valuable  to 
remain  idle.^ 

From  an  examination  of  the  report  which  was 
forecasted  at  the  Buffalo  meeting  of  the  National 
Municipal  League  ^  the  New  York  Tribune  seems  to 
be  amply  justified  in  saying  of  the  commission  move- 
ment generally  that  "  One  of  the  best  evidences  of  its 
substantial  strength  is  that  it  has  made  progress  quietly 

^  See  Mayor  Cramp's  Report,  January,  191 1. 
*  See  also  Buffalo  Proceedings,  page  562. 


MEMPHIS   AND    OTHER   CITIES  269 

and  naturally.  No  political  party  is  behind  it,  and  the 
politicians  generally  oppose  it  as  a  serious  invasion  of 
their  ancient  rights  and  privileges.  The  plan  is  being 
tried  on  a  small  scale  in  many  scattered  communities, 
and  its  merits  and  defects  are  being  gauged  by  peo- 
ple who  have  no  interest  in  it  except  as  a  means  to 
better  local  government.  It  is  not  being  exploited  as 
a  fad,  and  if  it  proves  its  value  the  traditional  form 
of  city  government  will  soon  find  it  a  formidable 
competitor  for  public  favor.  Everybody  will  admit 
that  we  have  still  much  to  learn  in  the  experimental 
science  of  local  self-government." 

Encouraging  as  has  been  the  record  of  Memphis 
under  commission  government,  the  record  of  Mayor 
Malone's  administration  which  immediately  preceded 
it  was  most  satisfactory.  In  fact  the  Nczvs  Scimitar  de- 
clared it  to  be  "  an  epochal  administration,"  giving  its 
reasons  in  this  fashion  :  ^ 

"  James  H.  Malone  has  closed  his  four  years'  term 
as  mayor  of  Memphis,  and  has  rendered  an  account  of 
his  stewardship. 

"  It  is  a  record  of  which  any  man  may  well  be 
proud. 

"  It  is  a  record  for  which  any  community  should  be 
grateful. 

"  It  has  marked  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  Memphis, 
both  in  the  things  done  and  in  the  manner  of  doing 
them. 

"  First  and  foremost,  the  record  has  been  absolutely 
clean.     The   public  interest,   and   the   public   interest 

*  See  News  Scimitar,  January  2,  1910. 


270 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


alone,  has  been  the  supreme  purpose  which  he  has  kept 
constantly  in  view.  The  dive-keeper,  the  ward-heeler, 
and  the  machine  politician — the  hangers-on  most  in 
evidence  around  too  many  mayors — were  conspicuous 
by  their  absence  from  the  city  hall  during  the  whole 
of  his  administration.  They  have,  ofttimes  seriously 
handicapped  him  by  their  enmity,  but  they  could  not 
influence  nor  control  him.  He  has  sometimes  been 
criticised  because  he  did  not  or  could  not  play  the 
political  game  with  such  gentry,  but  the  fact  that  he 
could  not  descend  to  their  questionable  methods  has 
been  really  the  most  significant  and  the  most  commend- 
able feature  about  him  as  a  man  and  as  an  official. 

"  Even  if  all  his  other  achievements  should  be 
counted  for  naught,  he  would  be  handed  down  in. his- 
tory as  the  *  man  who  paved  Memphis,'  and  future  gen- 
erations would  rise  up  and  call  him  blessed  for  this 
great  public  service. 

"  So  many  were  the  difficulties  and  legal  complica- 
tions involved  in  the  inauguration  of  the  front-foot 
assessment  plan  that  only  a  lawyer  of  his  eminent 
attainments  and  especial  executive  ability  could  have 
invoked  order  out  of  the  chaos  that  existed,  and  put 
into  operation  the  system,  ancj  the  only  system,  by 
which  Memphis  could  be  promptly  and  equitably  paved. 

"  We  cannot  in  the  short  space  of  this  editorial  go 
into  detailed  facts  and  figures.  Merely  as  an  instance, 
however,  of  what  has  .been  achieved  in  the  matter  of 
street  improvements,  we  take  occasion  in  passing,  to 
state  that  during  his  administration  sixty  miles  of  per- 
manently paved  streets  and  one  hundred  and  sixty- 


MEMPHIS   AND    OTHER   CITIES 


271 


seven  miles  of  granolith  sidewalks  have  been  completed, 
and  scores  of  other  street  improvements  have  been  pro- 
jected and  are  ready  for  completion  •  by  the  incoming 
administration.  A  few  of  the  other  big  things  done 
under  his  administration  are : 

"  The  legislation  leading  to  the  building  of  the  new 
$3,000,000  depot.  The  building  of  certain  subways 
and  the  passage  of  ordinances  which  will  lead  to  the 
construction  of  many  others,  one  after  another,  until 
the  last  of  the  grade  crossing  death-traps  shall  be 
eradicated.  The  development  of  the  most  magnificent 
park  system  in  the  South,  and  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world.  The  expansion  of  our  artesian  water  system, 
the.  largest  and  best  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  until  it 
is  worth  twice  as  much  as  the  city  paid  for  it.  The 
extension  of  the  city  limits  preparatory  to  the  census 
of  1910.  The  doubling  of  the  fund  for  public  school 
purposes  and  the  securing  of  the  state  normal  school 
for  Shelby  County.  The  improvement  of  the  health 
department  until  Memphis  now  ranks  third  among  the 
cities  of  the  United  States  in  point  of  health.  The 
radical  reform  in  the  methods  and  results  of  the  city 
court.  The  excellent  results  in  the  trial  of  causes  by 
the  legal  department.  The  increase  in  the  revenue,  the 
improvement  in  the  keeping  of  the  city  accounts,  col- 
lecting its  revenues,  running  its  market  house,  wharf 
department,  building  inspector's  ofiice  and  various  other 
departments  of  the  municipal  government. 

"  Besides  those  undertakings  completed,  many 
others  are  in  process  of  development,  and  need  only 
to  be  completed  by  the  succeeding  administrations.    For 


272 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


instance,  bond  issues  have  been  authorized  to  build  a 
new  police  station  and  to  buy  the  Memphis  &  Charles- 
ton yards  for  park  purposes,  to  erect  a  new  industrial 
school  which  is  to  cost  $350,000,  and  to  construct  addi- 
tional grammar  schools  to  cost  $150,000.  The  quarters 
of  the  city  officials  in  the  magnificent  new  courthouse 
have  been  furnished  at  an  expense  of  $35,000,  and  the 
mayor  and  other  city  officials  moved  into  the  new 
apartments  a  few  days  ago. 

"  Not  the  least  wonderful  part  of  this  record  is 
the  fact  that  while  all  these  things  have  been  accom- 
plished, the  tax  rate  has  been  lowered.  The  tax  rate 
under  the  previous  administration  went  as  high  at  one 
time  as  $2.88  per  hundred.  The  tax  rate  for  the  year 
1909  was  only  $1.76  per  hundred.  Under  the  old 
regime  there  were  three  separate  tax  rates  in  opera- 
tion in  three  separate  divisions  of  the  city.  Under  the 
Malone  administration  a  uniform  rate  of  taxation  has 
been  adopted  for  the  whole  city. 

"  When  Malone  came  into  office  the  city  owed  a 
current  indebtedness  of  $200,000.  He  put  the  city  on 
a  cash  basis  and  goes  out  of  the  office  leaving  no  open 
accounts  unpaid. 

"  An  illustration  of  this  wonderful  growth  is  shown 
in  the  fact  that  sixteen  million  dollars  of  permits  for 
the  erection  of  buildings  have  been  issued  in  the  last 
four  years,  and  the  city's  taxable  values  have  increased 
from  $66,000,000  to  $84,000,000 

"  There  has  been  a  corresponding  increase  in  the 
population  of  the  city  during  this  time,  and  at  the  close 
of  the  administration  Memphis  is  in  a  more  prosperous 


MEMPHIS   AND    OTHER   CITIES  273 

condition  in  every  way  than  at  any  previous  time  in 
her  history.  As  he  hands  the  municipal  government 
over  to  his  successor  the  future  of  Memphis  is  bright 
with  promise  in  every  respect." 

Even  though  strongly  stated  by  an  admiring  sup- 
porter, the  claims  made  for  Mr.  Malone's  administra- 
tion are  borne  out  by  the  final  report  of  his  work  which 
he  submitted  at  the  conclusion  of  his  term  and  which 
should  be  consulted  by  a  conscientious  and  high-minded 
official,  bent  upon  a  public-spirited  performance  of  his 
duties,  even  under  a  poor  law.^ 

From  Wichita,  Kan.,  comes  the  statement^  that 
the  first  examination  of  the  records  of  the  city  gov- 
ernment under  one  year  each  of  the  old  form  and 
the  new  commission  form  indicates  that  the  cost  grew 
alarmingly  in  every  department.  According  to  the 
figures  available,  the  commission  expended  one  half 
more  than  did  the  former  government.  One  year  of 
commission  rule  cost  $318,942.75,  while  the  last  year 
under  the  old  form  cost  $208,281,  making  a  differ- 
ence of  $110,661.75.  This  means  an  increase  of  fifty 
per  cent  if  the  figures  are  reliable. 

Under  the  new  regime  the  bookkeeping  is  so  clear 
that  every  dollar  can  be  traced,  while  the  old  form 
was  decidedly  weak  in  its  method  of  keeping  ac- 
counts. Hence  the  conclusion  that  the  new  form  has 
cost  fifty  per  cent  more  than  the  old  must  be  subject 

'  See  last  Annual  Report  of  James  H.  Malone,  Mayor  of  Memphis, 
Decembers:,  1909. 

'  See  article  of  Park  S.  Warren  in  the  Wichita  Beacon,  February 
23.  1911- 


274 


CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 


to  slight  amendments  growing  out  of  the  lack  of  sys- 
tem in  the  old  form. 

Expenditures  coming  under  the  entire  commission, 
such  as  salaries,  donations,  and  other  items  not  charge- 
able directly  to  some  department,  are : 

Executive  department $25,556. lo 

Donations 4,770 .  00     $30,326 .  10 

Under  the  Mayor: 

Police  department 36,959 .  50 

Fire  department 43>79i •  10       80,750. 60 

Under  Commissioner  Cone: 
Finance  department 2,670.43 

Under  Commissioner  Means: 

Lighting  department 28,669  ■  29 

Water  department 16,643  •  29       45,312 .  58 

Under  Commissioner  Stewart:  ' 

Park  department 14,150.39 

Public  buildings 6,258.57 

Health  department 11,407 ■  54        31,816. 50 

Under  Commissioner  Roetzel: 

Street  department 57,542.06 

Engineer's  department 35,865 .  24 

Sewer  department 16,307 .  50     109,696 .  80 

Election  commissioner 7,167.90 

The  election  commissioner  is  appointed 
by  the  governor  and  aU  the  city  has  to  do 
with  him  is  to  foot  the  bills. 

Printing 7,468 .  15 

Legal  department 3,496 .00 

Civil   service  commission 237 . 60 

Total $318,942 .  75 

Of  this  total  the  mayor  has  superintended  the  ex- 
pendittire  of  $8o,cx)o;  Commissioner  Cone,   $2,670; 


MEMPHIS    AND    OTHER   CITIES 


275 


Commissioner  Means,  $45,312;  Commissioner  Stew- 
art, $31,816;  Commissioner  Roetzel,  $109,696.  The 
entire  commission  as  a  body  has  spent  the  rest, 
amounting  to  about  $48,000, 

Because  the  system  of  bookkeeping  was  not  so 
plain,  the  last  year  of  the  old  form  offers  difficulties. 
Taking  the  warrant  book  of  the  treasurer  as  a  guide, 
Mr.  Warren  found  that  the  commission  form  cost  the 
city  $110,661.75  more  than  the  old  did.  This  con- 
clusion, however,  cannot  be  drawn  with  confidence, 
because  there  are  so  many  warrants  among  those 
issued  under  the  old  form  under  the  head  "  miscel- 
laneous "  which  do  not  tell  for  what  they  were  issued, 
giving  only  the  name  of  the  party  to  whom  issued. 
Evidently  all  supplies,  and  payments  of  every  nature 
are  included,  and  it  destroys  the  possibility  of  a  com- 
parison, because  some  of  these  warrants  covered  lia- 
bilities not  included  in  the  general  expense,  such  as 
interest  payments  on  bonds,  payments  of  improvement 
bonds,  and  other  unusual  bills.  The  last  year  of  the 
old  government  there  were  $124,975.60  worth  of  such 
warrants  issued. 

The  commission  government  inherited  about  $20,- 
000  in  bills  for  which  no  warrants  had  been  drawn 
during  the  last  month  or  two  of  the  year.  These 
should  be  added  to  the  liabilities  of  the  old  adminis- 
tration. 

Every  "  miscellaneous  "  expenditure  under  the 
commission  form  is  included  in  the  department  which 
contracted  it,  but  under  the  old  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
how  much  of  the  total  miscellaneous  belongs  to  each 


276     CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

department.  Hence  the  difficulty  to  give  exact  fig- 
ures. But  on  the  surface  are  to  be  found  the  follow- 
ing differences  in  favor  of  the  former  administration: 

Salaries  (new  form) $22,096 .  98 

Salaries  (old  form) 12,548 .  76       $9,548 .  22 

Donations  (new) 4,770.00 

Donations  (old) 2,216.60         2,553.40 

Police  and  fire  (new)  ....*....    80,760. 50 

Police  and  fire  (old) 61,201 .  54       19,549.06 

Light,   water,   printing,  health 

(new) 64,188 .  27 

Light,  water,  printing,   health 

(old) 46,418.76       17,769.51 

Park  and  buildings  (new) 20,408 .  96 

Park  and  buildings  (old) 15,997.94         4,411  02 

Elections  (new) '  7,167 .  90 

Elections  (old) 3,253  •  16         3,9i4 ■  74 

Legal  (new) 3,496 . 00 

Legal  (old) i,944-30  i,55i-7o 

Street,  engineer,  sewer  (new) .  . .  109,696 .  80 

Street,  engineer,  sewer  (old) ....    63,079 .  53       46,61 7 .  27 

These  figures  show  that  there  has  been  a  consid- 
erable increase  in  every  department,  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  city  has  been  growing  rapidly 
and  that  a  great  number  of  improvements  required 
more  expenditures. 

Kansas  City,  Kan.,  is  the  largest  city  in  that  state, 
and  in  December  last  it  completed  nine  months  of  ex- 
perience under  commission  government,  and  the  close 
of  1910  saw  the  city  established  on  a  cash-paying 
basis  and  a  surplus  in  every  fund  save  one,  the  light- 
ing fund.     The  floating  debt  was  very  nearly  wiped 


MEMPHIS   AND   OTHER   CITIES  277 

out  without  intrenching  on  this  year's  revenue.  In 
fact,  no  part  of  191 1's  receipts  were  used  for  1910 
expenses,  which  I  am  told  was  a  unique  experience  in 
the  history  of  the  city. 

All  Kansas  towns  are  not  committed  to  the  com- 
mission form.  I  had  seen  a  newspaper  dispatch  stat- 
ing that  a  certain  community  had  adopted  the  plan, 
and  I  wrote  to  the  mayor  to  secure  verification.  I 
received  the  following  postal  card  in  reply :  "  Aug.  24, 
10.  To  National  Municipal  League,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Gents;  Yours  to  hand  to  day  about  the  Com- 
mission form  of  Government  well  we  do  not  have  it 
never  have  Had  it  we  think  it  is  to  expenciv  for  a 
small  place  may  do  in  larger  places  but  what  we  know 
of  it  here  we  do  not  want  it  our  people  voted  it  out 
at  two  Elections  by  very  large  percent  of  voters  so  we 
cannot  give  mutch  light  on  it. 

"  Yours  very  Respct. Mayor." 

Enough  said ! 

Commission  government  experience,  however,  is 
by  no  means  confined  to  the  central  West.  Reports 
similar  to  those  already  quoted  may  be  cited  alike 
from  the  East  and  the  far  West. 

Here  is  a  striking  report  from  the  far  East :  Hav- 
erhill's former  government  was  typically  American, 
which  is  to  say  that  its  machinery  consisted  of  a 
mayor,  aldermen,  councilmen,  and  numerous  boards, 
all  sharing  power  with  each  other.  A  victim  of  Mon- 
tesquieu's doctrine  of  divided  powers,  the  system,  to 
use  the  words  of  a  municipal  expert,  was  "  cursed 
with  the  curse  of  divided  responsibility."     This  mul- 


278     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

tiplicity  of  authorities  was  meant  to  secure  democracy 
and  efficiency,  but  the  government  of  Haverhill  em- 
bodied neither.^  The  ward  plan  of  representation 
made  the  city  legislature  a  contending  chamber  for 
the  narrow  and  conflicting  interests  of  particular 
wards.  "  It  was  a  case  of  swap  a  lamp  post  in  Ward 
3  for  a  special  policeman  in  Ward  5,"  declared  a  man 
in  the  street.  No  wonder  a  constructive  plan  of  street 
building  was  impossible.  Of  course,  the  finances  of 
the  city  suffered  under  such  a  system,  and  in  Janu- 
ary, 1909,  a  floating  debt  of  $160,000  had  accumu- 
lated, the  fruits  of  a  policy  of  making  up  annual  def- 
icits through  a  resort  to  bond  issues.  It  is  sigiiificant 
of  the  inefficiency  of  the  old  government  that  one  of 
its  last  acts  was  to  issue  $39,000  worth  of  bonds  with 
which  to  pay  current  expenses.  An  exhaustive  search 
of  the  city's  financial  record  by  Harvey  S.  Chase  & 
Company,  of  Boston,  expert  accountants,  shows  con- 
clusively how  old  methods,  whereby  no  one  at  the  City 
Hall  seemed  to  know  the  exact  condition  of  the  city 
treasury,  have  been  replaced  by  new  ones;  how  the 
1909  administration  was  painstaking  in  making  sure 
that  all  current  expenditures  were  met  by  current  re- 
ceipts, in  contrast  to  the  lax  methods  displayed  by 
those  in  power  in  1908,  and  how,  most  important  of 
all,  the  city  was  run  within  its  income  per  the  $12  tax 
rate,  a  feat  which  the  report  says  had  not  been  accom- 
plished for  years.  In  figures  the  statement  says  that 
at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year,  1909,  there  was  a  surplus 
of  $36,511.87  in  the  treasury  as  compared  to  a  defi- 

^  See  Oswald  Ryan  in  The  Boston  Common,  October  8,  1910. 


MEMPHIS   AND   OTHER   CITIES 


279 


ciency  of  $79,451.66  at  the  same  period  in  1908, 
making  the  showing  of  the  1909  administration  $115,- 
963.53  better  than  that  of  the  preceding  administra- 
tion. The  margin  of  revenue  inside  the  $12  tax  limit, 
over  expenses,  was  $6,867.73,  this  figure  proving  be- 
yond any  question  or  doubt  that  Mayor  Moulton  Hved 
up  to  his  campaign  promises  of  1908.  On  this  one 
point  the  accountants  say  that  "  such  a  result  has  not 
been  achieved  in  Haverhill  for  many  years.  The 
present  administration  deserved  much  commendation 
for  its  foresight  and  vigilance  in  supervising  the  city's 
expenditure  and  in  holding  down  the  totals  to  the 
Hmit." 

Haverhill's  deplorable  financial  condition,  more 
than  any  other  thing,  pointed  out  the  urgent  need  of  a 
change.  To  the  practical  efficiency  of  the  new  govern- 
ment the  striking  improvement  in  the  city's  finances 
further  attests.  As  a  result  of  the  application  of 
improved  business  methods,  $15,000  was  saved  in  cur- 
rent expenses  during  the  first  year  of  the  new  regime, 
$61,000  worth  of  bills  received  as  a  legacy  from  the 
old  government  were  paid  off,  a  bonded  indebtedness 
of  $133,000  was  swept  away,  and  a  cash  surplus  de- 
posited to  the  credit  of  the  people.  The  confidence 
which  the  new  government  inspired  in  the  people  re- 
sulted in  an  increase  of  $17,000  in  the  tax  collections 
over  previous  years. 

No  systematic  oversight  over  expenditures  was 
kept  under  the  old  regime,  which  bought  supplies  at 
rates  dictated  by  the  dealers  and  permitted  gross  ex- 
travagance and  waste  in  the  administration  of  the 
19 


28o     CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

departments.  The  new  government,  through  the  de- 
partment heads,  keeps  a  rigid  supervision  over  expen- 
ditures, requires  a  cash  discount  on  the  prepayment  of 
bills,  lets  municipal  work  on  a  system  of  competitive 
bids,  and  buys  municipal  supplies  in  large  quantities, 
effecting  thereby  a  substantial  saving.  Clearly  the  ap- 
plication of  economy  and  promptness  to  the  city's 
affairs  would  not  have  been  possible  under  the  old 
government,  with  its  numerous  standing  committees, 
with  their  power  of  expenditure  without  reference  to 
the  council,  its  bicameral  legislature,  and  executive 
veto. 

Under  a  Massachusetts  statute,  in  1900.  the  Social- 
ist Mayor  of  Haverhill  appealed  to  the  State  Gas  and 
Electric  Light  Commission  for  protection  against 
exorbitant  gas  and  electric  rates.  The  state  commis- 
sion, acknowledging  the  justice  of  the  city's  cause, 
fixed  a  maximum  gas  rate  of  80  cents  per  thousand. 
The  Haverhill  Gas  Company,  contending  that  the 
commission's  act  was  confiscatory  under  the  Four- 
teenth Amendment  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  se- 
cured an  injunction  from  the  Federal  District  Court 
against  the  enforcement  of  the  commission's  order. 
A  master  was  appointed  to  investigate  the  case,  but 
the  investigation  never  took  place  and  the  case  slum- 
bered. Neither  the  commission,  the  court,  nor  the 
city  government  made  any  serious  effort  to  reopen  the 
case.  Meanwhile,  the  city  government  and  the  peo- 
ple of  Haverhill  continued  to  pay  the  old  gas  rate 
of  $1. 

Immediately  after  the  inauguration  of  the  present 


MEMPHIS    AND    OTHER    CITIES  281 

government,  the  city  commission,  at  the  advice  of  the 
city  soHcitor,  served  notice  on  the  gas  company  that 
the  city  would  discontinue  paying  the  $1  rate.  The 
soHcitor  took  the  case  to  the  Massachusetts  Supreme 
Court  and  obtained  an  order  assuring  the  city,  as 
such,  eighty-cent  gas. 

Now  the  city  government  has  secured  the  eighty- 
cent  rate,  but,  because  of  the  subject  relation  in  which 
it  stood  to  the  Commonwealth,  it  was  helpless  as  to 
the  main  question  of  the  price  of  gas  to  the  people 
of  Haverhill.  The  city  was  really  not  a  party  to  the 
case,  its  rightful  privileges  having  been  consigned  by 
law  to  authorities  over  which  it  had  no  control.  The 
only  possible  escape  from  the  situation  seemed  to  lie 
in  municipal  ownership,  and  the  city  government  at 
once  went  to  work  to  study  the  question. 

After  a  preliminary  announcement  of  its  deter- 
mination to  construct  a  gas  and  electric  plant  (the 
electric  light  monopoly  also  having  refused  to  lower 
its  high  rates)  the  gas  company  opened  negotiations 
with  the  local  commission,  with  the  result  that  a 
new  franchise,  satisfactory  to  the  government,  has 
been  granted  to  the  company,  which  has  been  re- 
organized. The  municipal  ownership  plan  has,  there- 
fore, been  abandoned  in  the  case  of  the  gas  company, 
but  the  electric  light  company  having  refused  to  ad- 
just its  differences  with  the  city,  the  question  of  the 
construction  of  an  electric  plant  has  been  favor- 
ably voted  upon  by  the  city  commission  and  will 
be  submitted  to  the  people  for  decision  in  the  next 
election. 


282      CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

What  conclusions,  Mr.  Ryan  asks,  may  we  draw 
from  Haverhill's  experience  under  commission  gov- 
ernment? It  is  perhaps  too  early  to  render  final 
judgment  on  the  commission  plan  and  dogmatic  con- 
clusions as  to  the  efficiency  of  this  system  would  pos- 
sess little  value.  But  the  Haverhill  experience  unmis- 
takably points  the  way  to  municipal  improvement  in 
cities  of  its  size.  The  prompt  and  efficient  transac- 
tion of  the  city's  business  requires  an  administrative 
machinery  fundamentally  different  from  the  anti- 
quated system  of  "  checks  and  balances." 

"  But  there  is  another  element  in  the  problem," 
Mr,  Ryan  declares,  "  the  character  of  the  people  on 
whom  the  government  rests.  The  Twelfth  Census 
shows  3,000  out  of  the  7, 000, /voters  of  Haverhill  to 
be  foreign  born,  but  the  great  bulk  of  this  class  are 
French  Canadians,  a  thrifty,  intelligent,  and  public- 
spirited  people.  Moreover,  Haverhill  is  a  great  shoe 
town  and  shoe  workmen  are  intelligent  as  a  class. 
Thus,  commission  government  in  the  case  of  Haver- 
hill has  rested  upon  an  electorate  of  strong  citizen- 
ship. Would  the  plan  succeed  in  another  city  where 
the  civic  ideal  is  of  a  different  fabric  due  to  a  differ- 
ent type  of  electorate?  It  is  well  in  this  connection 
to  remember  the  statement  of  the  Boston  Finance 
Commission  that  *  no  charter  is  a  self -executing  in- 
strument of  righteousness.'  " 

Going  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  we  find 
the  city  of  San  Diego  in  California  rejoicing  in  its 
experience  under  commission  government.  Its  mayor. 
Grant  Conrad,  has  taken  a  deep  interest  in  the  devel- 


MEMPHIS    AND    OTHER    CITIES  283 

opment  of  the  work  of  the  city,  and  at  the  St.  Paul 
meeting  of  the  League  of  American  MunicipaHties 
(August,  1910)  told  the  story  of  what  had  been 
accomplished.  The  condition  of  the  finances  of  the 
city  at  the  close  of  the  first  year  of  commission  gov- 
ernment shows  a  marked  improvement  over  the  pre- 
vious year,  due  to  the  saving  effected  by  the  reduc- 
tion of  running  expenses  of  the  various  departments 
and  the  saving  in  the  purchase  of  supplies  used  by  the 
city  through  the  establishment  of  the  purchasing 
bureau. 

By  the  new  system  instituted  by  the  finance  de- 
partment, the  city  is  able  to  purchase  many  articles 
at  wholesale  which  were  formerly  bought  at  retail, 
thus  saving  a  large  amount  of  money.  All  indebt- 
edness incurred  must  emanate  by  authority  of  the 
commission  and  pass  through  the  office  of  the  super- 
intendent of  the  department  of  finance,  where  a  com- 
plete record  is  kept  of  every  transaction.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  this  department  through  its  system  of 
requisitions  and  checks  has  effected  a  saving  to  the 
city  of  at  least  $25,000  during  the  year.  The  bonded 
indebtedness  of  the  city  was  reduced  about  $59,000, 
and  the  tax  rate  thirteen  per  cent. 

A  decided  improvement  was  shown  in  the  street 
department.  Streets  are  now  being  paved  under  the 
ten-year  bonding  plan  and  the  city  expects  to  pave 
ten  miles  and  more  of  its  streets  in  191 1.  The  streets 
of  the  city  as  a  whole  are  in  better  condition  than 
ever  before.  A  new  contract  has  recently  been  made 
for  street  lighting  by  means  of  which  the  city  secures 


284     CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

a  reduction  of  nearly  thirty  per  cent  in  the  cost  of 
street  hghting.  Under  the  new  contract  which  \vent 
into  effect  June  i,  19 10,  the  city  is  now  paying  $5 
per  month  for  arc  lamps  instead  of  $7  per  month 
under  the  old  system.  In  the  engineer's  department 
there  has  been  a  reduction  in  the  salaried  list  of  $760 
per  month,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  work  of 
this  office  has  greatly  increased. 

A  good  showing  has  also  been  made  in  the  de- 
partment of  fire  and  sewers.  The  fire  department  has 
been  greatly  improved  and  enlarged  and  put  upon  an 
efficient  basis.  The  loss  from  fires  the  past  year  has 
been  exceedingly  low.  The  creation  of  the  office  of 
fire  marshal  and  the  regulation  of  storage  of  explo- 
sives and  combustibles  has  gr,eatly  lessened  the  dan- 
ger of  fire.  The  department  is  now  independent  of 
politics  and  has  been  built  up  by  a  class  of  men  who 
take  pride  in  their  work.  The  tests  of  the  five  steam- 
ers belonging  to  the  city  which  were  recently  made  by 
the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  show  the 
highest  efficiency  attained  by  any  fire  department  in 
the  United  States.  The  Board  gave  San  Diego  a  rat- 
ing of  103  per  cent,  as  compared  to  a  rating  of  73 
per  cent  of  efficiency  which  this  city  received  five  years 
ago.  This  high  rate  of  efficiency  has  been  attained 
by  rigid  drill  and  discipline,  and  shows  the  excellent 
work  the  department  is  doing. 

To  keep  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  city,  the 
sewer  department  has  laid  18  miles  of  sewer  pipe  dur- 
ing the  past  year.  Under  the  old  system  sewer  exten- 
sion work  was  done  by  contract.     Under  the  present 


MEMPHIS    AND    OTHER    CITIES  285 

system  it  is  done  by  day  labor  at  a  saving  to  the  city 
of  about  six  cents  per  foot. 

One  thousand  new  connections  were  made  by  the 
water  department  and  about  1,100  new  meters  were 
installed  and  41  miles  of  new  \yater  pipe  was  laid. 
Notwithstanding  more  than  half  of  this  new  water 
pipe  was  paid  out  of  the  funds  from  the  water  de- 
partment, this  department  closed  the  year  with  a  net 
balance  of  $20,000.  The  surplus  for  the  previous 
year  was  less  than  $1,000. 

The  police  department  has  been  reorganized  and 
put  upon  a  thoroughly  efficient  basis.  The  laws  gov- 
erning the  sale  of  liquor  have  been  rigidly  enforced. 
Many  "  blind  pigs  "  have  been  raided  and  broken  up 
and  a  number  of  gambling  clubs  suppressed,  while 
the  dance  halls  in  the  red-light  district  have  been 
closed.  Many  undesirables  have  left  the  city,  and  the 
moral  atmosphere  of  the  city  has  been  greatly  im- 
proved. The  San  Diego  Tribune  of  March  22,  1910, 
stated  that  San  Diego  was  probably  freer  of  men 
and  women  of  the  undesirable  class  than  any  other 
city  of  similar  size  in  the  West.  A  leading  Methodist 
clergyman  recently  declared  that  San  Diego  was  the 
cleanest  city  in  which  he  had  ever  lived.  The  reforms 
accomplished  by  the  police  department  could  not  have 
been  accomplished  under  the  old  political  system, 
where  the  administration  of  the  department  was  in 
the  grip  of  a  political  boss. 

From  Tacoma  comes  word  that,  unlike  Des 
Moines  and  other  commissioned  governed  cities  which 
show  large  savings   from  the  beginning,  the  city  in 


286      CITY    GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

the  first  three  months  of  its  trial  of  the  commission 
system  has  exceeded  the  disbursements  of  the  corre- 
sponding quarter  of  1909  by  $130,000.  About  the 
only  new  work  started  since  the  new  form  of  govern- 
ment succeeded  the  old  is  the  Green  River  gravity 
plant.  But  few  have  been  placed  in  the  field  on  this 
work  and  the  added  expense  has  not  been  large.  The 
following  table  shows  the  operating  expenses  during 
the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July: 


May 

June 

July 

Totals 


$247,000.40 
273,955  16 
311,931.22 


$832,886.78 


$240,511.31 
245,996.26 
213,615.55 


700,123. 12 


This  shows  a  difference  in  the  net  cost  of  the  old 
and  the  new  form  of  government  of  $132,763.66  in 
favor  of  the  old  system.  The  old  council  set  aside 
$50,000  as  a  starter,  but  the  expenses  of  the  fire  de- 
partment have  practically  wiped  out  this  nest  egg. 
None  deny  that  the  city  has  grown  during  the  past 
twelve  months.  The  old  city  council  made  provision 
for  larger  expenses  and  bigger  receipts  were 
counted  on.^ 

Governor  A.  O.  Eberhart,  of  Minnesota,  is  a  resi- 
dent of  Mankato  in  that  state.  This  place  has  had  a 
commission  government  for  upward  of  a  year  and  here 

'  It  would  seem  that  possibly  the  wrong  men  had  been  chosen  to 
put  the  new  law  into  effect,  however,  as  the  mayor  was  recalled  in 
April,  191 1,  and  later  two  other  commissioners. 


MEMPHIS   AND    OTHER   CITIES  287 

is  what  the  Governor,  who  takes  a  broad  view  of  such 
matters,  has  to  say  about  its  operation  there : 

"  I  have  Hved  in  Mankato  a  great  many  years,  and  I 
think  it  will  be  conceded  I  ought  to  be  in  a  position  to 
know  just  what  public  sentiment  is  in  that  city  with 
regard  to  the  commission  plan.  I  wish  to  repeat  the 
statement  made  to  the  Sentinel  yesterday,  that  the  com- 
mission form,  as  applied  to  Mankato,  has  proved  an 
unqualified  success,  and  a  very  large  majority  of  the 
people  are  unconditionally  determined  on  continuing 
the  new  form  of  government.  In  fact,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  work  up  any  sentiment  that  would  amount 
to  anything  in  Mankato  against  the  bill. 

"  Experience  of  other  cities  has  already  proven  that 
the  arguments  which  are  being  raised  against  the  plan 
are  not  well  founded.  It  is  noticeable  that  where  the 
strongest  opposition  has  voiced  itself,  it  can  be  traced 
back  to  interests  which  do  not  wish  to  obey  the  law  and 
to  the  old-time  ward  politicians,  who  are  afraid  of  los- 
ing their  power.  The  commission  plan  will  sound  the 
death  knell  to  both  of  these  opposing  interests.  The 
commission  plan  may  not  be  perfect,  but  it  is  much 
more  so  than  the  ward  plan.  If  the  plan  is,  adopted  in 
Missoula,  it  will  be  found  that  the  commission  plan 
brings  into  service  the  very  best  type  of  public-spirited 
men  in  the  community.  That  such  will  be  the  case  here 
is  indicated  to  me  by  the  fine  body  of  men  I  have  met 
here,  who  are  strongly  advocating  the  plan." 


CHAPTER    XV 

THE   GROWTH   OF   THE   MOVEMENT 

No  single  movement  in  the  whole  domain  of 
municipal  affairs  has  had  the  marvelous,  rapid,  and  the 
widespread  growth  as  has  that  for  the  commission 
government  of  American  cities.  Fifteen  states  now 
have  general  laws  giving  to  the  cities  within  their  bor- 
ders an  opportunity  for  the  adoption  of  the  plan : 
Texas,  Iowa,  Kansas,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota, 
Mississippi,  Minnesota,  Wis(!onsin,  Illinois,  South 
Carolina,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Wyoming,  Alabama, 
and  Montana.  In  each  of  these  one  or  more  cities 
have  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  so  offered. 

To  this  list  must  be  added  the  states  of  Califor- 
nia, Colorado,  Oregon,  Michigan,  Missouri,  Okla- 
homa, and  Washington,  known  as  "  home  rule  states," 
in  which  cities  may  frame  their  own  charters.  In 
each  of  these,  save  Missouri  (and  even  there  St.  Jo- 
seph has  a  modified  form  of  commission  government), 
one  or  more  cities  have  adopted  commission  forms  of 
government.  In  a  number  of  states  the  system  has 
been  established  by  special  charter. 

As  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  I,^  267  cities  are  con- 
sidering the  question. 

1  See  page  i . 
288 


GROWTH   OF   THE   MOVEMENT  289 

The  following  is  a  list  of  cities  now  governed  by  a 
commission  government,  with  some  one  or  more  of 
the  modifications  described  in  the  Chapter  on  "  The 
Analysis  of  the  Commission  Form  "  : 

CITIES    ADOPTING  THE   COMMISSION  PLAN  OR 
A   MODIFIED    COMMISSION   FORM 

NORTH  ATLANTIC   DIVISION 

MASSACHUSETTS 

Chelsea  Charter  34.072 

Gloucester  (modified)  (1909)  "  24,398 

Haverhill  (1909)  "  44.II5 

Lynn  (191 1)  "  89,339 

Taunton  "  34.259 

NEW  JERSEY 

Trenton  96,815 

SOUTH  ATLANTIC  DIVISION 

MARYLAND 

Cumberland  21,839 

WEST   VIRGINIA 

Bluefield  (1909)  Charter  11,188 

Huntington  (1909)  "  31. 161 

Parkersburg  (191 1)  "  17.842 

NORTH   CAROLINA 


Charlotte  (19 10) 

Charter 

34.014 

Greensboro  (1911) 

(1 

15.895 

High  Point  (19 10) 

II 

9.525 

Wilmington  (191 1) 

SOUTH   CAROLINA 

25.748 

Columbia  (1910) 

State  Law 

26,311 

EAST  NORTH  CENTRAL 

DIVISION 

ILLINOIS 

Braceville         (1911) 

state  Law  adopted  by  city 

971 

Carbondale          " 

II        II 

II        II     II 

5,600 

Clinton                 " 

II        II 

II        11     II 

5.165 

Decatur 

11        11 

II        II     II 

31.140 

Dixon                   " 

II        II 

It        II     II 

7,216 

290     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 


Elgin               (19 

11)                   '  State  Law  adopted  by  city 

25.976 

Hillsboro              ' 

" 

" 

"         " 

" 

3.424 

Jacksonville         ' 

" 

' 

II         II 

' 

15.326 

Kewanee               ' 

II 

1 

II         II 

1 

9.307 

Moline                 ' 

II 

1 

II         II 

' 

24,199 

Ottawa                 ' 

II 

' 

II         II 

1 

9.535 

Pekin 

II 

1 

II         II 

1 

9.897 

Rochelle                ' 

II 

' 

II         II 

1 

2,732 

Rock  Island         ' 

II 

' 

■1         II 

' 

24.335 

Springfield            ' 

II 

' 

II         II     1 

1 

51.617 

Spring  Valley      ' 

II        1 

1 

II         II      1 

1 

7.035 

Stirling                  ' 

i<        1 

' 

II         II      1 

1 

7.467 

Waukegan            ' 

MICHIGAN 

II         II      II 

16,069 

Harbor  Beach 

Home  Rule  Law 

1.556 

Pontiac 

"         " 

" 

14.532 

Port  Huron 

II         II 

" 

18,532 

Wyandotte 

>i         II 

WISCONSIN 

II 

8,287 

Appleton 

State  Law  adopted  by  city 

16,773 

Eau  Claire  (19 10) 

"         " 

II         II      II 

15.543 

WES' 

r   NORTH   CENTRAL 

MINNESOTA 

DIVISION 

Faribault  (191 1) 

Home  Rule 

Charter  under 

State  Law 

9,001 

Mankato  (1910) 

Home  Rule 

Charter  under 

State  Law 

10,365 

IOWA 

Burlington  (19 10) 

State  Law 

34.234 

Cedar  Rapids  (i9< 

38)                       1 

33.811 

Davenport 

43.028 

Des  Moines  (1908 

) 

86,368 

Fort  Dodge  (19 10 

) 

15.543 

Keokuk  (19 10) 

14,008 

Marshalltown  (19 

10) 

13.374 

Sioux  City  (1910) 

MISSOURI 

47,826 

St.  Joseph 

(IV 

[odified  form) 

77.403 

GROWTH    OF    THE    MOVEMENT 


291 


NORTH 

DAKOTA 

Bismarck  (1909) 

State  Law 

6,000 

Mandan  (1909) 

"         " 

3,873 

Minot  (1909) 

SOUTH   DAKOTA 

6,188 

Aberdeen 

State  Law 

10,753 

Chamberlain 

1.275 

Canton 

2,103 

Dell  Rapids  (1909) 

1.367 

Huron          (1909) 

5.791 

Pierre 

3.656 

Rapid  City- 

3.854 

Sioux  Falls 

14,094 

Vermillion 

2,187 

Yankton 

3.787 

KANSAS 

Abilene 

(1910) 

State  Law  adopted  by  cil 

:y        4.426 

Anthony 

(1909) 

1            11               II            II        1 

2,835 

CaldweU 

(1910) 

1         11           II         II      1 

2,064 

Cherryvale 

(1910) 

1          11            II          11      1 

5.925 

CoffeyAolle 

" 

1          II            II          II      1 

12,687 

Council 'Grove      " 

<            II               l<            II       1 

2,545 

Dodge  City 

" 

1        11          II        .1     I 

3.214 

Emporia 

(1910) 

<            II               II            II       1 

9.058 

Eureka 

" 

1            II               II            II       1 

2,244 

Girard 

(1910) 

1          II            II          II      1 

2,552 

Hutchinson 

(1909) 

1            11               II            11       1 

16,364 

Independence 

/< 

1            11               <l            II        1 

'        10,480 

Tola 

(1910) 

1          II            II          II      1 

9.032 

Kansas  City 

" 

'          "            "          "      1 

82,331 

Leavenworth 

(1908) 

1          II            II          11      1 

19.363 

Marion 

(19 10) 

1         11           II         II      1 

2,133 

Neodesha 

" 

1            II               II            11        1 

2,283 

Newton 

(1910) 

1            II               II            11        1 

7,682 

Parsons 

" 

1            11               11            II        1 

12,463 

Pittsburg 

<( 

1            11               11            II       1 

14.755 

Topeka 

<( 

1          11           >11          11      1 

43.684 

Wellington 

" 

1            11               II            II       1 

7,034 

Wichita 

(1909) 

1            l<               II            II       1 

52,450 

292 


CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 


WEST   SOUTH   CENTRAL   DIVISION 

KENTUCKY 

Newport  (19 10) 

TENNESSEE 


30.309 


Chattancxjga 

44,604 

Memphis  (19 10) 

Charter 

131,105 

ALABAMA 

Birmingham  (191 1) 

State  Law 

132,685 

Montgomery 

MISSISSIPPI 

38,136 

Clarksdale  (19 

[Q) 

State  Law 

4-079 

Hattiesburg    " 

<<         li 

LOUISIANA 

11,733 

Shreveport  (19 10) 

State  Law 

28,015 

OKLAHOMA 

Ardmore 

(1909) 

Home  Rule  Charter 

8,618 

BartlesviUe 

(19IO) 

6,181 

Duncan 

' 

2477 

Enid 

(1909) 

13.799 

El  Reno 

(19IO) 

7.872 

Guthrie 

" 

11.654 

McAlester 

i< 

12,954 

Miami 

<i 

2,907 

Muskogee 

<< 

25,278 

Oklahoma  City  (191 1) 

"      t 

64.205 

Purcell 

2,740 

Sapulpa 

(19IO) 

8,283 

Stillwater 

(19II) 

3,444 

Tulsa 

(1909) 

18,182 

Wagoner 

(19IO) 

4,018 

TEXAS 

Aransas  Pass 

(1910) 

State  Law 

1. 197 

Austin 

(19II) 

Charter 

29,860 

Barry 

(19IO) 

State  Law 

Beaumont  (modified) 

20,640 

Corpus  Christi 

(1909) 

Ch 

arter 

8,222 

GROWTH    OF   THE   MOVEMENT 


293 


Dallas 

(1907) 

Charter 

92,104 

Denison 

<< 

" 

15.632 

Elkhart 

" 

El  Paso 

(1907) 

i< 

39.279 

Fort  Worth 

" 

<i 

73.302 

Galveston 

(1901) 

(( 

36.981 

Greenville  (partial)  (1907) 

<( 

8,850 

Harlingen 

Houston 

(1905) 

«                         • 

78,800 

Kennedy 

(1910) 

State  Law 

1,147 

Lyford 

" 

<<        <i 

Marshall 

(1909) 

Charter 

11,452 

Marble  Falls 

(1910) 

State  Law 

1,061 

Orange 

5,527 

Palestine 

(1909) 

Charter 

•      10,482 

Port  Lavaca 

(1910) 

State  Law 

1,200 

Sherman 

12,412 

Waco 

(1909) 

Charter 

26,425 

MOUNTAIN   DIVISION 

IDAHO 

Boise 

17,358 

Lewiston  (1907) 

Charter 

COLORADO 

6,043 

Colorado  Springs 

(1909) 

Home  Rule  Charter 

29,178 

Grand  Junction 

<i 

UTAH 

7,754 

Logan 

State  Law 

7.522 

Murray 

"         " 

4.057 

Ogden 

11         (( 

25,580 

Provo 

II         II 

8,925 

Salt  Lake  City 

NEW   MEXICO 

92,777 

Boswell  (modified)  (19 10) 

State  Law 

6,172 

PACIFIC  DIVISION 

WASHINGTON 

Seattle  (Semi-Commission) 

237.194 

Spokane  (191 1) 

Home  Rule  Charter 

104,402 

Tacoma  (19 10) 

<<         II           li 

83.743 

294 


CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 


Baker  City  (1910) 

Berkeley  (1909) 

Modesto       " 

Monterey  (191 1) 

Oakland  (1909) 

Riverside 

San  Diego  (1909) 

San  Luis  Obispo  (191 1) 

Santa  Cruz  " 

Vallejo 


St.  John's 


OREGON 

Home  Rule  Charter 

6,680 

CALIFORNIA 

Home  Rule  Charter 

40,431 

7.258 

4.923 

150.174 

15,212 

39.578 

5.157 

11,146 

11.340 

CANADA 

NEW  BRUNSWICK 


40,711 


Although  to  date  there  has  been  no  repeal  of  any 
commission  government  law  'or  charter,  the  proposi- 
tion has  been  defeated  in  a  considerable  number  of 
cities,  of  which  the  following  is  a  list: 


LIST   OF    CITIES   IN    WHICH    COMMISSION    GOVERNMENT 
HAS    BEEN    DEFEATED 

Pueblo,  Colorado. 

Bloomington,  Champaign,  Charleston,  Danville, 
Galesburg,  Greenville,  Joliet,  La  Grange,  Monmouth, 
Petersburg,  Peoria,  Quincy,  Rockford,  Savanna, 
Sterling,  Sycamore,  Taylorville — Illinois. 

Caney,  Eldorado,  Fort  Scott,  Hiawatha,  Paola, 
Winfield — Kansas. 

Lexington,  Kentucky. 

Highland  Park,  Michigan. 

Albert  Lea  (postponed),  Mankato  (afterwards 
adopted) — Minnesota. 


GROWTH    OF   THE   MOVEMENT 


295 


Biloxi,  Mississippi, 

Bayonne,  New  Jersey. 

Asheville,   Raleigh,   North   Carolina. 

Fargo,  Grand  Forks,  North  Dakota. 

Claremore,  Chickasha,  Guthrie,  Oklahoma  City, 
Sapulpa,  Oklahoma. 

Portland,  Oregon. 

Fort  Pierre,  IMitchell,  Spearfish,  Vermillion,  Wa- 
tertown,  South  Dakota. 

Cuero,  San  Antonio,  Taylor,  Texas. 

Bellingham,  Washington. 

Chippewa  Falls,  Janesville,  Wisconsin. 

In  a  large  number  of  states  there  are  strong  and 
vigorous  campaigns  on  foot  which  give  promise  of 
successful  issue.  The  Governor  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
Hon.  John  K.  Tener,  in  his  inaugural  message  in  Jan- 
uary, 191 1,  declared  in  favor  of  commission  govern- 
ment, saying  that  "  Since  Galveston,  Texas,  adopted 
a  commission  form  of  government  to  secure  its 
rehabilitation  after  almost  total  annihilation,  ap- 
proximately a  hundred  cities  of  this  country  have 
followed  in  its  wake  and  are  to-day  prospering  under 
the  most  efficient  and  economical  form  of  government 
yet  devised  for  the  administration  of  public  affairs. 

"  Briefly  put,  the  controlling  idea  of  the  system  is 
that  a  city  being  a  corporation  should  be  governed  as 
a  corporation,  by  a  board  of  directors;  the  board 
should  be  small  and  properly  compensated,  and  di- 
rectly responsible  to  the  people,  and  thus  an  honest, 
efficient  and   economic   business  management   can   be 

Note. — List  made  up  to  June  15,  191 1. 
20 


296     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

had.  There  are  many  cities  in  the  Commonwealth 
which  doubtless  would  hasten  to  avail  themselves  of 
this  form  of  government  if  it  were  legally  available. 
Serious  consideration,  therefore,  should  be  given  by 
the  Legislature  to  this  important  subject." 

A  strong  "  Committee  of  Allied  Civic  Bodies," 
representing  cities  of  the  third  class  and  boroughs  in 
Pennsylvania,  prepared  a  bill,  which  was  a  compre- 
hensive one,  providing  for  vesting  the  legislative  power 
in  a  mayor  and  four  councilmen  and  no  officers  of  the 
United  States  or  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  were 
eligible  as  councilmen.  The  bill  failed  of  passage ;  but 
its  promoters  feel  a  measure  of  encouragement  because 
of  the  fact  that  the  question  was  a  new  one  in  Pennsyl- 
vania; and  because  some  of  the  main  principles  were 
embodied  in  the  "  Pittsburg  Plan  "  for  cities  of  the  sec- 
ond class. 

New  Jersey  has  been  the  scene  of  another  encour- 
aging and  successful  fight  for  the  adoption  of  a  com- 
mission government  law.  In  the  early  days  of  De- 
cember last  the  State  Civic  Federation  was  asked  to 
interest  itself  in  this  form  of  government.  It  found 
that  there  were  five  cities  more  or  less  definitely  inter- 
ested :  Newark,  Jersey  City,  Trenton,  New  Brunswick 
and  Passaic.  A  conference  of  the  city  officials  and 
boards  of  trade  of  these  cities  was  called  to  meet  at 
the  Newark  City  Hall,  January  4,  191 1.  The  ground 
was  gone  over  thoroughly,  and  in  a  general  way  it 
was  thought  that  three  features  should  not  be  in- 
cluded in  any  legislation  covering  the  proposition. 
These   features  were   the   educational   system  of  the 


GROWTH    OF    THE    MOVEMENT 


297 


towns,  which  was  covered  by  state  laws,  the  civil  serv- 
ice, likewise  so  covered,  and  the  recall,  because  it  seemed 
to  be  the  impression  of  those  present  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  this  feature  might  make  any  bill  prepared  fail 
of  passage. 

At  a  second  conference  on  January  17,  twelve 
cities  were  represented.  And  again  the  ground  was 
carefully  gone  over,  this  time  on  lines  determined  by 
the  first  conference.  During  this  time  Trenton  had 
been  active.  Its  Chamber  of  Commerce  had  arranged 
for  a  day  on  the  "  Know  Your  City  "  program,  which 
program  was  carried  out  during  the  w'eek  of  January 
22  to  2^.  At  this  meeting  nineteen  cities  were  repre- 
sented, both  by  boards  of  trade,  chambers  of  com- 
merce, civic  associations,  and  by  city  officials.  The 
mayors  of  eight  or  nine  of  these  cities  w-ere  present 
and  took  active  part  in  the  program.  Further  commit- 
tees were  appointed  and  a  final  conference  called  in 
Newark.  This  conference  met  and  discussed  the  mat- 
ter to  a  finish. 

During  the  Trenton  meeting  sentiment  had  slightly 
veered  as  to  the  advisability  of  including  the  initia- 
tive, referendum  and  recall  in  the  bill.  At  the  final 
conference  ^  it  veered  more  completely,  and  the  meet- 
ing, on  taking  a  vote,  found  by  a  reasonably  large 
majority  that  the  delegates  of  the  twenty-two  cities 
there  represented  favored  the  introduction  of  all  three 
of  these  features,  Jersey  City  standing  for  the  recall 
but  not  for  initiative  and  referendum,  while  the  other 

'  See  address  of  Adolph  Roeder  before  the  Legislative  Committee, 
on  March  15,  191 1. 


298      CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

cities  divided  on  the  question ;  the  majority  were  in 
favor  of  the  three  features  being  introduced. 

As  a  result  of  these  several  conferences,  a  compro- 
mise bill  was  pressed  and  passed  with  the  active  co- 
operation of  Governor  Wilson,  the  main  features  of 
which  are : 

That  upon  the  petition  of  20  per  cent  of  the 
voters^  of  a  community  the  question  of  the  adoption 
of  the  law  locally  must  be  submitted  at  an  election. 
The  board  of  commissioners  shall  be  three  in  cities  of 
less  than  10,000;  five  in  cities  of  10,000  or  more. 
The  number  may  be  changed  from  3  to  5  or  from 
5  to  3  by  commissioners  by  ordinance,  subject  to  peti- 
tion, referendum  and  endorsement  by  the  voters.  The 
term  of  office  shall  be  four  years.  All  meetings  shall 
be  public,  as  well  as  the  minutes.  Regular  meetings 
must  be  held  weekly.  Salaries  of  commissioners  in 
cities  of  first,  second  and  third  classes  shall  be  not 
more  than 


For_ 
Commissioner. 


For  Mayor. 


Below  500 

500  to      1,000 

1,000  to      2,500 

2,500  to      5,000 

5,000  to    10,000 

10,000  to    20,000 

20,000  to    40,000 

40,000  to    90,000 

90,000  to  200,000 

Over  200,000 


$50 
200 

350 
500 

750 
1,200 
1,500 
2,000 
3,000 
5,000 


$75 

250 

500 

750 

1,000 

1,500 

1,800 

2,500 

3,500 
5,500 


*  This  was  eventually  made  30%. 


GROWTH    OF   THE   MOVEMENT 


299 


In  cities  of  the.  fourth  class  not  more  than 


For 
Commissioner. 


For  Mayor. 


Below  500 

500  to  1,000 

1,000  to  2,500 

2,500  to  5,000 

5,000  to  10,000 

10,000  to  20,000 

20,000  to  40,000 

40,000  to  90,000 

Over  90,000 


$250 
500 
1,000 
1,250 
1,500 
2,000 
2,500 
3,000 
5,000 


$500 
750 
1,250 
1,500 
2,000 
2,500 
3,000 
4,000 
5,500 


Salaries  may  be  fixed  by  any  board  by  ordinance, 
subject  to  petition,  referendum  and  endorsement  by 
the  voters.  This  gives  every  city  opportunity  to  fix 
by  popular  vote  the  compensation  of  its  commission- 
ers. 

Officers  and  employees  must  not  directly  or  indi- 
rectly be  interested  in  any  contract  performed  for  the 
city  or  for  any  public  utility  corporation;  nor  receive 
any  free  pass  or  service  of  same,  transportation 
of  policemen  and  firemen  in  uniform  excepted, 
and  must  make  no  promise  to  secure  any  support 
or  vote. 

Other  provisions  are  similar  to  the  usual  run  of 
commission  laws. 

In  Virginia  the  campaign  is  being  conducted  by 
the  League  of  Virginia  Municipalities,  which  at  its 
last  annual  meeting  declared  that  in  order  "  to  give 
to  the  whole  State  of  Virginia,  counties  as  well  as 
cities,  the  advantage  of  the  system  of  pure  democracy 
now  enjoyed  by  the  State  of  Oregon,  the  League  of 


300     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

Municipalities  heartily  endorses  the  commission  plan 
of  city  government,  of  which  direct  legislation  is  an 
essential  feature,  and  in  order  that  the  best  interests  of 
the  cities  as  well  as  the  counties  may  be  conserved, 
urges  the  electors  throughout  the  State,  both  in  city 
and  county,  to  vote  for  no  man  for  the  Legislature 
who  will  not  pledge  himself  to  vote  and  work  for  the 
passage  of  two  amendments  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
State,  one  conferring  on  the  electors  thereof  and  in  its 
local  subdivisions  the  right  of  direct  legislation 
through  the  initiative  and  referendum,  and  the  second 
conferring  on  cities  the  right  to  make  their  own 
charters."  Amendments  to  this  effect  are  now  be- 
ing considered  by  the  present  session  of  the  legis- 
lature. , 

Alabama's  legislature  passed  an  act  in  191 1  which 
established  commission  government  in  the  cities  of 
Birmingham  and  ■Montgomery,  the  two  cities  having 
over  100,000.  The  first  named  city  will  have  a  com- 
mission of  three  and  the  latter  one  of  five.  The  sal- 
ary of  each  is  $7,000.  The  mayor  in  office  at  the  time 
of  the  passage  of  the  act  was  made  a  member  of  the 
commission,  .and  the  other  commissioners  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor  of  Alabama.  Hereafter  they 
will  be  elected  by  the  people. 

New  York  State  has  a  Commission  Government 
Association  which  is  vigorously  advocating  an  op- 
tional law  in  that  Commonwealth,  and  backing  up  such 
local  movements  as  the  active  Buffalo  one.  It  is  ad- 
vocating a  measure  providing  that  cities  of  third  class 
may  adopt  a  commission  form  of  government.     The 


GROWTH    OF   THE   MOVEMENT  301 

petition  for  the  submission  of  such  a  proposition  must 
be  signed  by  at  least  one-eighth  of  the  voters  at  the 
last  preceding  municipal  election.  The  government  of 
the  cities  is  to  be  under  control  of  a  city  council  to 
be  elected  for  four-year  terms,  except  that  in  the  first 
instance,  if  they  are  elected  in  an  even  numbered  year 
they  are  to  be  elected  for  three  years.  The  bill  also  pro- 
vides for  the  initiative,  the  referendum  and  the  recall. 
The  member  of  the  council  receiving  the  highest  num- 
ber of  votes  is  to  be  the  mayor.  There  are  to  be  five 
members  of  the  council  and  they  are  to  be  the  only 
elective  officers  of  the  city. 

At  a  hearing  held  on  March  28  before  a  joint  ses- 
sion of  the  Cities  Committees  of  the  legislature,  del- 
egations from  twenty-five  cities  appeared  to  argue  in 
favor  of  several  measures  providing  for  a  commission 
form  of  government.  Despite  the  distractions  caused 
by  the  senatorial  situation,  two  full  committees  listened 
for  several  hours  to  the  dry  facts  concerning  this  form 
of  municipal  government.  Half  a  dozen  commission 
charter  bills  have  been  introduced  this  year.  Two 
of  these  provide  a  regular  form  of  charter  for  second 
and  third-class  cities.  The  three  measures  specifically 
considered  were  bills  providing  new  charters  on  the 
commission  plan  for  the  city  of  Buffalo,  the  city  of 
Mount  Vernon,  and  Batavia,  the  largest  village  in  the 
State. 

Utah's  legislature  passed  a  bill  providing  for  the 
commission  form  of  government  which  will  apply 
to  Salt  Lake  City,  Ogden,  Logan.  Provo  and  Alurray. 
In  Salt  Lake  City  there  will  be  five  commissioners, 


302 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


but  in  all  other  cities  three  commissioners.  The  sal- 
aries in  cities  of  the  first  and  of  the  second  class  as 
having  over  20,000  inhabitants  are  $3,600  per  annum 
for  the  commissioners  and  $4,200  per  annum  for  the 
mayor  commissioner.  Ogden  is  the  only  city  of  the 
second  class  coming  within  this  provision.  In  cities  of 
the  second  class  having  less  than  20,000  inhabitants 
the  salaries  will  be  from  $500  to  $2,000,  to  be  fixed 
within  the  range  stated  by  the  out-going  city  council. 
Aside  from  the  elimination  of  the  initiative,  referen- 
dum and  recall  and  civil  service  provisions,  the  scheme 
is  practically  a  duplicate  of  the  Des  Moines  plan,  ex- 
cept that  this  form  of  government  is  imposed  upon 
the  cities  to  which  it  applies,  no  privilege  of  voting 
on  the  adoption  being  given.    , 

Wyoming,  too,  has  a  new  commission  law,  passed 
this  year.  It  covers  cities  of  10,000  and  more  and 
gives  the  electors  of  the  cities  upon  15  per  cent  of  them 
the  option  of  voting  on  the  adoption  of  the  plan.  The 
State  of  Washington  enacted  a  law  at  the  191 1  session 
providing  for  the  commission  plan  in  cities  of  a  popu- 
lation from  2,500  to  20,000. 

There  are  a  number  of  modifications  of  the  com- 
mission plan  which  are  interesting  as  showing  the  in- 
fluence of  the  movement.  The  "  Staunton  Plan  "  is 
the  most  significant  of  these.  According  to  John 
Crosby,  president  of  the  commission  council  of  Staun- 
ton, Virginia,^  in  IMarch,  1908,  the  city  of  Staunton, 
w^ith  a  population  of  12,000  or  more,  threw  off  the 
yoke  of  municipal  government  by  council  committees 

*  See  Municipal  Journal  and  Engineer,  December    9,  1909. 


GROWTH    OF   THE   MOVEMENT 


303 


and  adopted  the  unique  and  business  method  of  gov- 
ernment by  a  general  manager,  whose  prototype  is 
found  in  every  large  private  corporation.  "  Council- 
men  as  a  rule  are  men  who  have  their  private  affairs 
to  look  after,  which  naturally  consumes  much  of  their 
time  and  attention,  and  it  is  not  reasonable  to  presume 
that  they,  receiving  neither  pay  nor  thanks  for  any- 
thing they  may  do  for  the  interest  of  the  city,  can  af- 
ford to  neglect  their  private  interests  to  look  after 
the  business  of  the  city.  Hence,  under  the  old  system, 
the  affairs  of  the  city  were  run  by  the  heads  of  de- 
partments with  the  assistance  of  a  few  councilmen  who, 
in  a  great  many  cases,  were  contractors  bidding  for 
city  contracts.  Not  frequently  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments were  men  totally  unfit  for  the  positions  they 
occupied.  They  received  their  appointments  and  held 
their  jobs  through  political  or  other  favored  influ- 
ence. Under  the  present  '  Staunton  Plan  '  this  is  all 
a  thing  of  the  past,  and  the  business  of  the  city  is  con- 
ducted on  the  same  general  business  principles  that  all 
large  industrial  private  corporations  are  conducted 
on." 

The  Constitution  of  Virginia  requires  cities  to 
maintain  their  mayor  and  council,  and  in  cities  of  the 
first  class  (those  having  a  population  of  ten  thousand 
or  more)  two  branches  of  the  council  are  required. 
"  Therefore,"  Mr.  Crosby  tells  us,  "  Staunton  was  un- 
able to  abolish  the  council  and  adopt  a  commission 
form  of  municipal  government.  However,  as  the  pro- 
visions of  Section  1038  of  the  Code  permits  the  coun- 
cil to  establish  such  offices  as  may  be  necessary  to 


304 


CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 


properly  conduct  the  city's  affairs,  the  idea  of  a  gen- 
eral manager  was  conceived,  and  the  following  ordi- 
nance was  adopted : 

AN   ORDINANCE   CREATING  THE  OFFICE  OF  A   GENERAL 
MANAGER  FOR  THE  CITY  OF   STAUNTON,  VIRGINIA 

"  Be  it  ordained  by  the  Council  of  the  City  of 
Staunton :  Virginia. 

"  I.  That  there  be  appointed  by  the  two  branches 
of  the  council  in  joint  session  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  adoption  of  this  resolution  and  thereafter  annually 
at  the  regular  election  of  city  officers,  in  July  of  each 
year,  an  officer  to  be  known  and  designated  as  '  gen- 
eral manager.'  , 

*' 2.  The  general  manager  (except  in  case  of  the 
first  appointment  under  this  resolution,  which  shall 
be  until  the  next  regular  election  of  city  officers,  in 
July,  1908)  shall  hold  office  for  the  term  of  one  year 
and  until  his  successor  is  duly  elected  and  qualified, 
unless  sooner  removed  by  the  council  at  its  pleasure. 

"  3.  The  general  manager  shall  be  paid  an  annual 
salary  of  *  *  *  dollars,  and  he  shall  have  the  right 
to  employ  one  clerk  at  a  salary  of  *  *  *  dollars 
per  annum,  to  be  paid  by  the  city,  the  amount  to  be 
hereafter  fixed  by  the  council. 

"  4.  The  general  manager  shall  devote  his  entire 
time  to  the  duties  of  his  office,  and  shall  have  entire 
charge  and  control  of  all  the  executive  work  of  the 
city  in  its  various  departments,  and  have  entire  charge 
and  control  of  the  head  of  departments  and  employees 


GROWTH    OF   THE   MOVEMENT  305 

of  the  city.  He  shall  make  all  contracts  for  labor  and 
supplies,  and  in  general  perform  all  of  the  adminis- 
trative executive  work  now  performed  by  the  several 
standing  committees  of  the  council  except  the  finance, 
ordinance  and  auditing  committees.  The  general  man- 
ager shall  discharge  such  other  duties  as  may  from 
time  to  time  be  required  of  him  by  the  council. 

"  5.  The  general  manager  before  entering  upon 
the  duties  of  his  office  shall  execute  a  bond  before  the 
clerk  of  the  council  in  the  penalty  of  $5,000  with 
good  and  sufficient  surety,  conditioned  for  the  faithful 
performance  of  the  duties  of  his  office." 

This  ordinance,  as  will  be  readily  seen,  is  brief  and 
simple,  yet  broad  in  its  general  terms,  and  can  easily  be 
expanded  should  the  city's  needs  demand  it. 

So  far  the  results  have  been  highly  satisfactory, 
although,  as  Mr.  Crosby  wisely  points  out: 

"Of  course  this  system,  like  all  others,  depends 
largely  on  the  man  who  is  in  charge.  In  this  we  were 
fortunate  in  securing  for  general  manager  the  serv- 
ices of  a  man  who  has  measured  up  to  all  of  our  re- 
quirements, Charles  E.  Ashburner.  So  thoroughly 
satisfied  was  the  council  with  the  results  of  his  man- 
agement for  the  first  year,  that  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  his  salary  was  increased  by  $500.  In  small 
cities  and  towns  I  think  it  very  essential  that  the  gen- 
eral manager  should  be  a  practical  engineer,  as  this 
will  save  the  expense  of  an  engineer  on  the  street 
work." 

"  The  Lockport  Plan,"  as  it  has  been  called  because 
of  the   action   of   the   Board   of  Trade  of   Lockport, 


3o6      CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

N.  Y.,  in  fathering  it,  represents  another  variation. 
In  the  view  of  its  advocates  it  more  nearly  approxi- 
mates the  government  of  a  city  to  the  management 
of  a  well-conducted  and  prosperous  private  corpora- 
tion. Under  this  plan  there  is  a  board  of  five  alder- 
men elected  at  large  on  a  non-partisan  ballot  for  a 
term  of  five  years  and  subject  to  a  recall  and  with 
initiative  and  referendum  provisions.  This  board  of 
commissioners  or  aldermen  is  a  legislative  board. 
Its  only  administrative  act  is  to  select  a  "  city  man- 
ager." who  appoints  all  city  employes  subject  to  civil- 
service  rules,  prepares  the  annual  budget,  and  is  re- 
sponsible to  the  council  for  the  administration  of  all 
city  departments  except  that  of  education. 


CHAPTER    XVI 


THE   SUMMING    UP 


In  reaching  a  conclusion  as  to  the  effectiveness  and 
efficiency  of  city  government  by  commission  it  must 
always  be  borne  in  mind  that  its  introduction  into 
American  municipal  affairs  has  been  coincident  with 
the  awakening  of  the  American  people  to  their  mu- 
nicipal duties.  This  fact  has  given  it  vogue  and 
vitality.  The  American  student,  legislator,  adminis- 
trator, turns  a  friendly  ear  to  every  suggested  solu- 
tion, and  when  a  plan,  even  though  owing  its  intro- 
duction into  the  arena  of  current  affairs  to  a  great 
physical  disaster,  produces  results  so  generally  satisfac- 
tory to  the  people  of  the  cities  directly  concerned,  it  is 
only  natural  that  it  should  be  given  a  broad  and  gener- 
ous support. 

It  has  been  wisely  said  that  the  commission  gov- 
ernment movement  involves  both  a  protest  and  a  pol- 
icy :  a  protest  against  the  old  order ;  an  intelligent  pol- 
icy for  a  new  order.  American  municipal  conditions 
have  been  bad,  desperately  bad,  and  the  rapid  adop- 
tion of  a  plan,  any  plan,  by  155  cities  and  its  considera- 
tion by  267  more,  shows  how  discontented  Americans 
have  become  with  these  conditions.     To  be  sure  there 

307 


3o8      CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

are  many  other  evidences  of  discontent,  but  in  this  con- 
nection it  is  only  necessary  to  cite  this  one. 

The  simpHcity  of  the  commission  government  is 
perhaps  its  greatest  claim  to  consideration,  and  the 
chief  cause  of  its  success.  It  provides  a  simple  form  of 
nomination,  a  simple  scheme  of  government,  a  simple 
machinery  for  its  enforcement,  a  simple  method  of 
holding  the  interest  of  the  voters  and  of  enabling  them 
to  control  their  government. 

"  It  Was  a  fool,"  declared  Mark  Twain,  "  who 
said,  '  Don't  put  all  your  eggs  in  one  basket  ?  '  The 
wise  man  puts  all  his  eggs  in  one  basket  and  then 
watches  that  basket." 

Our  ordinary  municipal  government  has  exhibited 
the  folly  of  putting  our  eggs  in  many  baskets.  In 
our  fear  that  some  public  official  might  steal  an  egg 
now  and  then  we  have  so  scattered  our  eggs  that  no- 
body can  watch  them,  nor  for  that  matter  in  some  cases 
even  tell  where  they  all  are.  The  keynote  of  success  of 
American  private  corporations  is  a  system  by  which 
some  one  individual  is  personally  responsible  for  every- 
thing done  or  left  undone  in  the  entire  business.  The 
recognition  of  this  necessity  has  created  the  new  profes- 
sion of  business  systematizers.  Several  years  ago  the 
founder  of  a  great  industry,  reluctantly  yielding  to 
his  sons,  allowed  an  expert  to  reorganize  the  business 
he  had  spent  a  lifetime  in  building  up.  The  net  re- 
sult was  a  chart  fixing  personal  responsibility  upon 
some  individual  for  every  detail  of  enterprizes  cov- 
ering several  states.  A  year  later  the  father  declared 
money  so  spent  to  be  the  best  investment  of  his  life. 


THE    SUMMING  UP 


309 


So  in  regard  to  the  usual  American  municipal 
charter  and  until  recently  the  usual  annual  budgets 
and  reports.  The  actual  fact  has  been  that  the  average 
citizen  did  not  in  the  least  know  who  was  responsible 
for  the  existing,  unsatisfactory  state  of  affairs,  nor 
how  to  get  to  work  to  change  it.  It  is  doubtful  if 
even  a  finance  commission  like  Boston's  could  really 
do  so.  It  may  be  that  a  city  is  getting  as  good  value 
for  its  expenditures  as  its  neighbors  for  their  smaller 
ones.  It  may  be  quite  the  reverse.  It  may  be  all  its 
officials  are  honest  and  competent.  The  point  is  that 
under  the  present  system  it  is  difficult  to  find  out  and 
determine  these  facts.  Under  commission  govern- 
ment such  a  situation  does  not  exist  to  the  same  de- 
gree. Some  official  is  made  personally  responsible 
for  every  dollar  of  public  expenditures,  and  any  man 
of  average  intelligence  can  with  comparative  ease 
find  out  who  spent  the  money,  for  what  it  was  spent 
and  whether  the  article  purchased  cost  more  or  less 
than  others  paid  for  the  same  thing.  This  is  a  great 
advantage  of  the  commission  plan,  and  the  results  de- 
scribed at  considerable  length  in  chapters  XII,  XIII 
and  XIV  have  been  achieved  because  of  this  direct 
and  difficult-to-escape  responsibility  of  the  commis- 
sioners. 

As  the  University  of  Wisconsin  Bulletin,  already 
quoted,  points  out,  the  records  of  the  commission-gov- 
erned cities  show  that  the  plan  has  almost  invariably 
led  to  an  improvement  over  the  old  system.  In  some  in- 
stances, the  improvement  has  been  marked,  even  phe- 
nomenal; but  in  most  cases  merely  what  might  be 


3IO 


CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 


reasonably  expected  from  the  introduction  of  better 
business  methods.'  It  has  not  always  resulted  in  an 
actual  reduction  in  the  cost  of  running  the  city,  but  it 
has  invariably  resulted  in  an  improvement  in  the  ser- 
vices rendered.  In  all  cases  the  city  has  been  placed 
on  a  cash  basis,  and  its  credit  raised  to  par  and  above. 
In  no  city  has  there  been  a  deficit  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  All  cities  have  received  interest  on  their  de- 
posits, and  have  received  such  discounts  as  have  been 
offered  for  cash  payments.  In  general,  there  has  been 
an  increase  in  the  yearly  improvements  made,  and  in 
most  cities,  a  more  liberal  park  policy  pursued.  In 
practically  all  cities  operating  public  utilities,  there  has 
been  *an  increase  in  the  revenue,  and  a  reduction  in 
operating  expenses,  due  to  the  introduction  of  better 
business  and  administrative  methods.  In  no  city  ex- 
cept Tacoma,  Wash.,  has  a  commissioner  ever  been 
recalled,  although  one  or  two  unsuccessful  attempts 
have  been  made.  No  city,  having  adopted  the  com- 
mission plan,  has  yet  abandoned  it.  This  has  been  so 
because  "  the  voters  elect  only  officials  important 
enough  to  know  about,  and  few  enough  for  them  to 
know  about;  and  because  these  few  officials  are  given 
power  enough  to  be  held  to  account." 

Thus,  it  would  seem  that  the  commission  plan  has 
established  a  prima  facie  case.  Whether  or  not  this 
will  be  permanent,  and  the  same  results  will  be  ob- 
tained when  the  newness  of  the  broom  has  worn  off 
and  the  novelty  of  the  change  has  gone,  only  the  longer 
experience  of  a  larger  number  of  cities  can  show.    So 


THE    SUMMING   UP 


3" 


far  the  large  majority  of  the  commission  cities  have 
had  only  a  year  or  less  of  experience  under  the  plan. 

The  commission  form,  in  so  far  as  it  removes 
needless  checks  and  balances,  needless  restrictions  and 
red  tape,  enables  the  people  the  more  readily  and 
quickly  to  get  possession  and  keep  possession  of  their 
government — if  they  desire  to  do  so.  Although  in  this 
connection  it  must  be  pointed  out  that  the  concentra- 
tion of  administrative  and  legislative  powers  and  duties 
in  one  set  of  men  at  election  time  may  confuse  the 
issues,  the  electorate  may  wish  to  endorse  the  policy 
represented  by  a  poor  administration  or  condemn  the 
policy  of  an  efficient  executive,  and  yet  it  will  find  its 
hands  tied  because  of  the  mingling  of  duties.  On  the 
other  hand,  officials  finding  themselves  hampered  and 
harassed  by  innumerable  restrictions  and  endless  red 
tape  lose  courage  and  hope,  and  their  administrations 
end  in  disappointment  alike  to  themselves  and  to  the 
people,  no  matter  how  anxious  they  may  have  been  at 
the  start  to  do  really  fine  things.  Under  the  commis- 
sion form  they  have  a  fair  chance  to  do  things.  And 
further,  as  the  commission  knows  no  ward  boundaries, 
being  elected  at  large  to  represent  the  whole  city, 
the  opportunity  for  getting  and  keeping  a  higher  type 
of  more  efficient  and  public-spirited  men  in  office  is 
increased. 

We  must  never  overlook  the  fact,  however,  that  a 
change  in  the  form  of  government  without  a  change 
in  the  hearts  of  the  people  will  avail  nothing.  As  the 
Chicago  Tribune  has  so  sagely  remarked,  "  the  several 
cities  which  have  been  so  quick  to  adopt  the  commis- 
21 


312      CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

sion  form  would  do  well  to  temper  their  hopes  and 
look  to  the  part  an  alert  civic  conscience  has  to  play 
in  the  success  of  all  governments.  Neither  they  nor 
any  other  community  will  ever  discover  any  device 
which  will  relieve  the  citizen  of  the  irksome  duties  of 
citizenship.  He  may  relieve  himself.  But  he  will  pay 
the  price."  This  may  be,  as  the  Tribune  admits,  a 
sorry  platitude,  but  it  is  also  an  inexorable  truth.  The 
great  improvement  in  English  municipal  govern- 
ment did  not  come  through  a  change  in  the  form,  al- 
though there  was  some  improvement  in  detail.  It 
came  through  the  determination  of  the  English  people 
to  have  better  government.  As  Dr.  Munro  points  out 
in  his  admirable  "  Government  of  European  Cities :  " 
"The  change  (inaugurated  yi  1835)  has  not  been 
brought  about  by  any  sweeping  reconstruction  of  the 
organs  of  municipal  government;  for  these  are  now 
almost  exactly  the  same  in  structure  and  in  function 
as  they  were  before  1835.  It  was  the  spirit,  not  the 
form  of  local  administration  that  was  profoundly  al- 
tered during  the  epoch  of  reform;  the  real  change  was 
that  the  citizens  came  to  have  a  genuine  voice  in  the 
administration  of  their  own  local  affairs,  that  mu- 
nicipal oligarchy  gave  way  to  municipal  democracy." 
There  must  be  no  abandonment  of  the  struggle 
for  charter  readjustment  in  America,  however. 
There  must  be  an  improvement  both  in  tools  and  the 
man.  Carlyle  hit  the  nail  squarely  on  the  head  in  his 
statement  that  "  the  true  epic  of  our  time  is  not  arms 
and  the  man,  but  tools  and  the  man,  an  infinitely 
wider  kind  of  epic."     We  want  the  enlightened,  per- 


THE    SUMMING   UP 


3^3 


sistently  interested  citizen,  and  modern,  effective  tools 
and  machinery,  to  accomplish  the  important  work  of 
governing  our  great  cities. 

Whether  or  not  the  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment will  be  the  dominant  form  in  American  munici- 
palities it  is  impossible  at  this  time  to  say,  no  cities 
except  Galveston,  Houston,  and  possibly  Des  Moines, 
having  as  yet  given  it  a  really  sufficient  trial.  But  if 
permanently  successful  in  those  cities,  which  are  at 
present  operating  under  it,  the  plan  will  exert  a  pro- 
found influence  on  the  political  thought  and  activities 
of  the  country.  "  All  that  can  be  safely  declared," 
in  the  opinion  of  Prof.  Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  of  Har- 
vard, based  on  personal  observation,  "  is  that  the 
Texas  commissions  are  so  far  distinctly  successful  and 
are  likely  to  last  a  considerable  time  and  perhaps  will 
be  permanent."  The  careful  observer  is  not  willing 
to  go  beyond  this;  nevertheless,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  plan  has  two  fundamental  essentials  to 
successful  municipal  government:  simplicity  and  con- 
centration of  authority  and  responsibility,  and  these 
are  mainly  responsible  for  the  popularity  and  success 
of  the  movement. 

Just  how  much  of  the  success  so  far  achieved  in 
the  commission-governed  cities  is  due  to  the  existence 
of  the  initiative,  referendum  and  recall  in  so  large  a 
number  of  the  laws  is  as  yet  an  undetermined  ques- 
tion. They  represent  an  effort  to  control  the  govern- 
ment in  the  interest  of  the  people.  In  legal  parlance 
they  may  be  said  to  represent  the  power  of  instruction 
(initiative),  confirmation  (referendum)  and  cancella- 


314 


CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 


tion  (recall)  in  a  simple  and  effective  form.  Thus 
far  there  has  been  so  little  use  of  them  that  there  are 
not  sufficient  facts  to  justify  the  statement  of  a  con- 
clusion.^ It  may,  however,  be  fairly  argued  that  their 
existence  constitutes  a  substantial,  and  on  the  whole, 
an  effective  safeguard.  Their  value  rests  in  their  ex- 
istence, rather  than  in  their  use.  At  the  same  time  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  Texas,  where  commis- 
sion government  got  its  first  impetus,  neither  of  these 
provisions  exists  to  any  considerable  extent,  and 
the  present  governor  of  the  state  has  vetoed  a  char- 
ter containing  them  on  the  ground  that  they  are  un- 
democratic and  unnecessary  to  the  success  of  com- 
mission government.-  In  a  personal  letter  one  of  the 
leading  proponents  of  the  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment says :  "  I  am  sending  you  under  separate  cover, 
copy  of  to-day's  Galveston  Nezi's,  containing  the  veto 
filed  on  yesterday  by  the  governor  of  this  state,  of  a 
new  charter  for  the  city  of  Texarkana  containing  the 
initiative,  the  referendum,  and  recall.  I  believe  the 
governor's  message  to  be  a  strong  document  and 
worthy  of  careful  consideration.  One  of  the  two  mem- 
bers of  the  legislature  from  this  city  has  introduced  a 
bill  containing  these  same  provisions  to  be  applied  to 
the  Galveston  charter.    Our  board  of  city  commission- 

*  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  their  effect  see  the  volume  in  the 
National  Municipal  League  Series  (published  by  D.  Appleton  &  Co.) 
on  the  Initiative,  Referendum  and  Recall,  edited  by  Prof.  William 
Bennett  Munro. 

'  See  Governor  Colquitt's  veto  of  the  Texarkana  Charter  bill,  Feb. 
20,  1911. 


THE    SUMMING   UP 


315 


ers  and  our  commercial  bodies  have  unanimously  peti- 
tioned against  the  adoption  of  said  provisions.  As  Our 
state  senator  is  opposed  to  said  provisions,  and  in  view 
of  the  governor's  action,  there  is  now  no  possible  dan- 
ger of  our  charter  being  disturbed.  The  provisions 
referred  to  may  work  well  in  some  cities,  but  there  is 
absolutely  no  doubt  in  my  mind  but  that  said  provisions 
would  work  to  no  good  purpose  in  the  Galveston  char- 
ter. We  have  in  our  city  a  very  large  number  of 
negroes  employed  on  the  docks;  we  also  have  a  very 
large  number  of  unskilled  white  laborers ;  this  city  also 
has  more  barrooms,  according  to  its  population,  than 
any  other  city  in  Texas.  Under  these  circumstances  it 
would  be  extremely  difficult  to  maintain  a  satisfactory 
city  government  where  all  ordinances  must  be  sub- 
mitted back  to  the  voters  of  the  city  for  their  ratifica- 
tion and  approval.  Our  city  attorney,  one  of  the  ablest 
lawyers  in  the  entire  state  and  a  man  of  splendid  judg- 
ment, is  also  strongly  opposed  to  the  initiative,  refer- 
endum, and  recall."  My  correspondent,  however,  does 
not  point  out  why  this  self-same  electorate  should  be 
given  the  right  to  select  officials,  but  not  to  recall  them 
if  corrupt  or  inefficient,  or  instruct  them  if  they  are  in 
doubt  or  obstinate. 

Advocates  of  the  plan  must  guard  against  herald- 
ing the  commission  form  as  a  panacea  for  all  mu- 
nicipal ills  and  as  a  sort  of  self-acting  scheme  for 
political  perpetual  motion.  As  Lowell,  in  one  of 
his  Essays,  so  sagely  observes:  "After  our  constitu- 
tion got  fairly  into  working  order  it  really  seemed  as 
if  we  had  invented  a  machine  that  would  go  of  itself, 


3i6     CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

and  this  begot  a  faith  in  our  luck  which  even  the  civil 
war  itself  but  momentarily  disturbed."  So  with  com- 
mission government  it  seems  in  some  cases,  and  in  the 
minds  of  some  of  its  advocates,  to  be  capable  of  run- 
ning itself.  Such  an  attitude  is  sure  to  reap  disap- 
pointment and  reaction.  Commission  government 
does  not  solve  the  problem  of  home  rule,  it  does  not 
supply  intelligence  to  either  voters  or  officials.  It  is 
by  no  means  the  last  word  on  the  subject  of  muni- 
cipal government,  although  it  is  a  most  important  one. 
There  are  many  who  believe  that  the  next  step  is  to 
chose  commissioners  who  will  serve  without  pay,  as 
a  board  of  directors  or  a  board  of  English  aldermen, 
they  in  turn  selecting  or  engaging  the  needed  special- 
ists for  life  or  good  behavior  to  do  the  real  every- 
day work  of  the  city.  Such  a  plan  has  been  suggested 
for  Lincoln,  Nebraska.  The  Staunton  plan  represents 
another  significant  modification.  In  the  words  of  one 
of  the  principal  proponents  of  the  Galveston  plan : 
"  The  commission  plan  is  all  right.  It  is  an  improve- 
ment, an  unqualified  success;  but  no  plan  can  be  de- 
vised which  is  self-operative,  or  which  will  relieve  the 
people  from  the  responsibilities  of  self-government. 
It  is  my  belief  that  every  city  will  have  just  such  city 
government  as  its  people  deserves,"  and  as  E.  L.  God- 
kin  pointed  out  many  years  ago,  "  no  municipal  re- 
form will  last  long,  or  prove  efficient,  without  a  strong 
and  healthy  public  opinion  behind  it.  With  this,  al- 
most any  charter  will  prove  efficient:" 

"  I  may  add,  however,  that  the  commission  form 
of  government,  with  the  safeguards  which  have  been 


THE    SUMMING    UP 


317 


thrown  around  it,  constitutes  a  very  substantial  step 
forward  in  the  betterment  of  municipal  government  in 
America. 

Let  no  one  be  discouraged  because  we  do  not  make 
progress  faster,  or  because  "  the  level  of  government 
rises  pretty  exactly  in  proportion  to  the  rise  of  the 
level  of  civilization."  It  is  well,  "  to  fight  for  ob- 
jective reforms,  even  for  their  own  sake,  but  the  great 
good  which  emerges  from  reform  movements  does  not 
get  into  the  statutes.  That  good  is  the  inspiration  to 
citizenship."  Moreover,  it  is  essential  that  in  a  de- 
mocracy, democracy  should  really  prevail,  and  this  it 
can  only  do  if  the  principles  of  self-government  in 
true  simplicity  prevail.  In  the  words  of  a  Des  Moines 
commissioner  of  experience :  "  We  have  not  worked 
miracles  and  our  acts  have  not  been  faultless.  We  have 
simply  abolished  an  antiquated  and  complicated  sys- 
tem that  made  it  practically  impossible  for  first-rate 
men  to  accomplish  anything,  and  have  installed  a 
simpler  system  under  which  it  has  become  difficult 
for  even  second-rate  men  to  avoid  giving  good  ser- 
vice and  themselves  grow  in  efficiency  and  self-re- 
spect. 

"  We  set  up  no  claim  that  we  have  attracted  men  of 
much  higher  character  or  much  larger  calibre  into  the 
city's  service.  We  simply  get  good  work  from  such 
as  we  have. 

"  We  are  not  boasting  loudly  of  greatly  reduced 
tax  levies.  All  we  can  point  to  with  pride  is  that  our 
levies  are  a  little  lower;  that,  being  lower,  we  for 
the  first  time  in  the  city's  history  live  within  our  in- 


3i8     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY    COMMISSION 

come,  for  current  expense,  instead  of  piling  up  yearly- 
deficits,  to  be  funded  later  into  permanent  debts.  We 
do  claim  and  can  prove,  however,  that  the  city  gets 
much  more  for  its  less  money,  and  that  contract  work 
charged  to  abutting  property  is  far  better  and  more 
permanent. 

"  We  have  no  long  and  showy  list  of  referendums 
carried  over  the  heads  of  unwilling  commissioners,  or 
of  ordinances  neglected  by  them  triumphantly  initiated 
by  the  voters,  or  of  unfaithful  commissioners  recalled. 
This  is  because  these  great  measures  have  restored 
genuine  representative  government  in  Des  Moines. 
Our  representatives  represent." 

That  of  itself  is  a  substantial  achievement. 


CHAPTER    XVII 


THE   DES    MOINES    PLAN 


As  the  Des  Moines  charter  embodies  in  simple 
form  the  chief  features  of  commission  government,  it 
is  given  here  in  its  entirety  to  afford  at  one  and  the 
same  time  a  concrete  illustration  for  the  general  stu- 
dent and  a  form  for  those  called  upon  to  draught  com- 
mission charters.  The  Des  Moines  Act  "  to  provide 
for  the  government  of  certain  cities  "  was  enacted 
by  the  Iowa  Legislature,  March  29,  1907.    It  provides : 


Cities  Affected  by  the  Act 

Section  i.  That  any  city  of  the  first  or  second 
class,  or  with  special  charter,  now  or  hereafter  having 
a  population  of  seven*  thousand  or  over,  as  shown  by 
the  last  preceding  state  census,  may  become  organized 
as  a  city  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  by  proceeding 
as  hereinafter  provided. 

1  Originally  this  figure  was  25,000.     It  was  amended  March  30, 
1909. 

319 


320     CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 


Provision  for  the  Submission  of  the  Question  of  Com- 
mission Government  to  the  Electors 

Sec.  2.  Upon  petition  of  electors  equal  in  number 
to  twenty-five  per  centum  of  the  votes  cast  for  all  can- 
didates for  mayor  at  the  last  preceding  city  election  of 
any  such  city,  the  mayor  shall,  by  proclamation,  sub- 
mit the  question  of  organizing  as  a  city  under  this  act 
at  a  special  election  to  be  held  at  a  time  specified  there- 
in, and  within  two  months  after  said  petition  is  filed; 
provided,  however,  that  in  case  any  city  is  located  in 
two  or  more  townships  said  petition  shall  be  signed  by 
twenty-five  per  centum  of  the  qualified  electors  of  said 
city  residing  in  each  of  said  townships.  If  said  plan 
is  not  adopted  at  the  special  election  called,  the  ques- 
tion of  adopting  said  plan  shall  not  be  resubmitted  to 
the  voters  of  said  city  for  adoption  within  two  years 
thereafter,  and  then  the  question  to  adopt  shall  be  re- 
submitted upon  the  presentation  of  a  petition  signed 
by  electors  as  hereinbefore  provided,  equal  in  number 
to  twenty-five  per  centum  of  the  votes  cast  for  all  can- 
didates for  mayor  at  the  last  preceding  general  city 
election.  At  such  election,  the  proposition  to  be  sub- 
mitted shall  be,  "  Shall  the  proposition  to  organize  the 
city  of  (name  the  city),  under  chapter  fourteen-c 
(14-c)  of  the  supplement  to  the  code,  1907,  as 
amended  by  the  acts  of  the  thirty-third  general  assem- 
bly, be  adopted  ?  "  and  the  election  thereupon  shall  be 
conducted,  the  vote  canvassed,  and  the  result  declared 
in  the  same  manner  as  provided  by  law  in  respect  to 
other  city  elections.     If  the  majority  of  the  votes  cast 


THE    DES    MOINES    PLAN  323 

shall  be  in  favor  thereof,  cities  having  a  population  of 
twenty-five  thousand  and  over  shall  thereupon  proceed 
to  the  election  of  a  mayor  and  four  councilmen,  and 
cities  having  a  population  of  seven  thousand,  and  less 
than  twenty-five  thousand,  shall  proceed  to  the  elec- 
tion of  a  mayor  and  two  councilmen,  as  herein- 
after provided.  Immediately  after  such  proposition  is 
adopted,  the  mayor  shall  transmit  to  the  governor,  to 
the  secretary  of  state,  and  to  the  county  auditor,  each 
a  certificate  stating  that  such  proposition  was  adopted. 
At  the  next  regular  city  election  after  the  adoption  of 
such  proposition  there  shall  be  elected  a  mayor  and 
councilmen.  In  the  event,  however,  that  the  next  regu- 
lar city  election  does  not  occur  within  one  year  after 
such  special  election  the  mayor  shall,  within  ten  days 
after  such  special  election,  by  proclamation  call  a  special 
election  for  the  election  of  a  mayor  and  councilmen, 
sixty  days'  notice  thereof  being  given  in  such  call; 
such  election  in  either  case  to  be  conducted  as  herein- 
after provided.^ 

Applying  the  Law  and  Existing  Ordinances  to  Com- 
mission-Governed Cities 

Sec.  3.  All  laws  governing  cities  of  the  first  and 
second  classes  -  and  not  consistent  with  the  provis- 
ions of  this  act.  and  sections  955,  956,  959,  964,  989, 
1,000,  1,023  and  1,053  o^  th^  Code  now  applicable  to 
special  charter  cities  and  not  inconsistent  with  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act,  shall  apply  to  and  govern  cities 

1  As  amended  by  the  Act  of  March  30, 1909.        '  Ibid. 


324     CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

organized  under  this  act.  All  by-laws,  ordinances  and 
resolutions  lawfully  passed  and  in  force  in  any  such 
city  under  its  former  organization  shall  remain  in  force 
until  altered  or  repealed  by  the  council  elected  under 
the  provisions  of  this  act.  The  territorial  limits  of 
such  city  shall  remain  the  same  as  under  its  former 
organization,  and  all  rights  and  property  of  every  de- 
scription which  were  vested  in  any  city  under  its  for- 
mer organization,  shall  vest  in  the  same  under  the 
organization  herein  contemplated,  and  no  right  or  lia- 
bility either  in  favor  of  or  against  it,  existing  at  the 
time,  and  no  suit  or  prosecution  of  any  kind  shall  be 
affected  by  such  change,  unless  otherwise  provided  for 
in  this  act. 


Elective  Offices.     Terms  of  Office  and  Vacancies 

Sec.  4.  In  every  city  having  a  population  of  twen- 
ty-five thousand  and  over  there  shall  be  elected  at  the 
regular  biennial  municipal  election  a  mayor  and  four 
councilmen,  and  in  every  city  having  a  population  of 
seven  thousand  and  less  than  twenty-five  thousand, 
there  shall  be  elected  at  such  election  a  mayor  and  two 
councilmen.^ 

If  any  vacancy  occurs  in  any  such  office  the  re- 
maining members  of  said  council  shall  appoint  a  per- 
son to  fill  such  vacancy  during  th^  balance  of  the  un- 
expired term. 

Said  officers  shall  be  nominated  and  elected  at  large. 

'  As  amended  by  the  Act  of  March  30,  1909. 


THE   DES   MOINES    PLAN 


325 


Said  officers  shall  qualify  and  their  terms  of  office  shall 
beg-in  on  the  first  Monday  after  their  election.  The 
terms  of  office  of  the  mayor  and  councilmen  or  alder- 
men in  such  city  in  office  at  the  beginning  of  the  terms 
of  office  of  the  mayor  and  councilmen  first  elected 
under  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  then  cease  and 
determine,  and  the  terms  of  office  of  all  other  ap- 
pointive officers  in  force  in  such  city,  except  as  here- 
inafter provided,  shall  cease  and  determine  as  soon  as 
the  council  shall  by  resolution  declare. 

N omhiation  and  Election  of  Candidates 

Sec.  5.  Candidates  to  be  voted  for  at  all  general 
municipal  elections  at  which  a  mayor  and  councilmen 
are  to  be  elected  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall 
be  nominated  by  a  primary  election,  and  no  other 
names  shall  be  placed  upon  the  general  ballot  except 
those  selected  in  the  manner  hereinafter  prescribed. 
The  primary  election  for  such  nomination  shall  be  held 
on  the  second  Monday  preceding  the  general  municipal 
election.  The  judges  of  election  appointed  for  the 
general  municipal  election  shall  be  the  judges  of  the 
primary  election,  and  it  shall  be  held  at  the  same  place, 
so  far  as  possible,  and  the  polls  shall  be  opened  and 
closed  at  the  same  hours,  with  the  same  clerks  as  are 
required  for  said  general  municipal  election.  Any  per- 
son desiring  to  become  a  candidate  for  mayor  or  coun- 
cilman shall,  at  least  ten  days  prior  to  said  primary 
election,  file  with  the  said  clerk  a  statement  of  such 
candidacy,  in  substantially  the  following  form: 


326      CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

State  of  Iowa, County,  ss. 

I  ( )  being  first  duly  sworn,  say  that  I  re- 
side at street,  city  of ,  county  of 

State  of  Iowa ;  that  I  am  a  quahfied  voter  therein ;  that 
I  am  a  candidate  for  nomination  to  the  office  of 
(mayor  or  councilman)  to  be  voted  upon  at  the  pri- 
mary election  to  be  held  on  the Monday  of 

19-  •  •,  ^nd  I  hereby  request  that  my  name 

be  printed  upon  the  official  primary  ballot  for  nomina- 
tion by  such  primary  election  for  such  office. 

(Signed)    


Subscribed  and  sworn  to  (or  affirmed)  before  me 
by on  this day  of 

19... 

(Signed)    

and  shall  at  the  same  time  file  therewith  the  petition  of 
at  least  twenty-five  qualified  voters  requesting  such 
candidacy.  Each  petition  shall  be  verified  by  one  or 
more  persons  as  to  the  qualifications  and  residence, 
with  street  number,  of  each  of  the  persons  so  signing 
the  said  petition,  and  the  said  petition  shall  be  in  sub- 
stantially the  following  form : 

PETITION    ACCOMPANYING    NOMINATING 
STATEMENT 

The  undersigned,  duly  qualified  electors  of  the  city 

of and  residing  at  the  places  set  opposite 

our  respective  names  hereto,  do  hereby  request  that  the 
name  of  (name  of  candidate)  be  placed  on  the  ballot 


THE   DES   MOINES   PLAN 


327 


as  a  candidate  for  nomination  for  (name  of  office)  at 
the  primary  election  to  be  held  in  such  city  on  the 
Monday  of 19 .  . .  We  fur- 
ther state  that  we  know  him  to  be  a  qualified  elector  of 
said  city  and  a  man  of  good  moral  character  and  quali- 
fied in  our  judgment  for  the  duties  of  such  office. 


Names  of 
Qualified  Electors 


Number 


Street 


Immediately  upon  the  expiration  of  the  time  of  fil- 
ing the  statement  and  petitions  for  candidacies,  the 
said  city  clerk  shall  cause  to  be  published  for  three  suc- 
cessive days  in  all  the  daily  newspapers  published  in 
the  city,  in  proper  form,  the  names  of  the  persons  as 
they  are  to  appear  upon  the  primary  ballot,  and  if  there 
be  no  daily  newspaper,  then  in  two  issues  of  any  other 
newspapers  that  may  be  published  in  said  city ;  and  the 
said  clerk  shall  thereupon  cause  the  primary  ballots  to 
be  printed,  authenticated  with  a  fac-simile  of  his  sig- 
nature. Upon  the  said  ballot  the  names  of  the  candi- 
dates for  mayor,  arranged  alphabetically,  shall  first  be 
placed,  with  a  square  at  the  left  of  each  name,  and  im- 
mediately below  the  words,  "  Vote  for  one.''  Follow- 
ing these  names,  likewise  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order,  shall  appear  the  names  of  the  candidates  for 
22 


328     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

councilmen,  with  a  square  at  the  left  of  each  name,  and 
below  the  names  of  such  candidates  shall  appear  the 
words,  "  Vote  for  four,"  or  "  Vote  for  two,"  as  the 
case  may  be.  The  ballot  shall  be  printed  upon  plain, 
substantial  white  paper,  and  shall  be  headed : 

CANDIDATES   FOR   NOMINATION   FOR 

MAYOR  AND  COUNCILMEN  OF 

CITY  AT   THE   PRIMARY  ELECTION. 

but  shall  have  no  party  designation  or  mark  whatever. 
The  ballots  shall  be  in  substantially  the  following 
form : 

(Place  a  cross  in  the  square  preceding  the  names  of 
the  parties  you  favor  as  candidates  for  the  respective 
.  positions. )  ., 

OFFICIAL    PRIMARY    BALLOT. 
CANDIDATES   FOR   NOMINATION   FOR 

MAYOR  AND  COUNCILMEN  OF 

CITY  AT  THE  PRIMARY  ELECTION. 

For  Mayor. 

(Name  of  Candidate.) 

(Vote  for  one.) 

For  Councilmen, 

(Name  of  Candidates.) 

(Vote  for  four)  or  (Vote  for  two)  as  the  case  may  be. 

Official  Ballot  attest : 
(Signature) 

City  Clerk. 


THE    DES    MOINES    PLAN  329 

Having  caused  said  ballots  to  be  printed,  the  said 
city  clerk  shall  cause  to  be  delivered  at  each  polling 
place  a  number  of  said  ballots  ecjual  to  twice  the  num- 
ber of  votes  cast  in  such  polling  precinct  at  the  last 
general  municipal  election  for  mayor.  The  persons 
who  are  qualified  to  vote  at  the  general  municipal  elec- 
tion shall  be  qualified  to  vote  at  such  primary  election, 
and  challenges  can  be  made  by  not  more  than  two  per- 
sons, to  be  appointed  at  the  time  of  opening  the  polls  by 
the  judges  of  election ;  and  the  law  applicable  to  chal- 
lenges at  a  general  municipal  election  shall  be  applicable 
to  challenges  made  at  such  primary  election.  Judges  of 
election  shall,  immediately  upon  the  closing  of  the 
polls,  count  the  ballots  and  ascertain  the  number  of 
votes  cast  in  such  precinct  for  each  of  the  candidates, 
and  make  return  thereof  to  the  city  clerk,  upon  proper 
blanks  to  be  furnished  by  the  said  clerk,  within  six 
hours  of  the  closing  of  the  polls.  On  the  day  follow- 
ing the  said  primary  election,  the  said  city  clerk  shall 
canvass  said  returns  so  received  from  all  the  polling 
precincts,  and  shall  make  and  publish  in  all  the  news- 
papers of  said  city,  at  least  once,  the  result  thereof. 
Said  canvass  by  the  city  clerk  shall  be  publicly  made. 
The  two  candidates  receiving  the  highest  number  of 
votes  for  mayor  shall  be  the  candidates,  and  the  only 
candidates,  whose  names  shall  be  placed  upon  the  bal- 
lot for  mayor  at  the  next  succeeding  general  municipal 
election,  and  in  cities  having  a  population  of  twejity- 
five  thousand  and  over,  the  eight  candidates  receiving 
the  highest  number  of  votes  for  councilman,  or  all 
such  candidates  if  less  than  eight,  and  in  cities  having 


330 


CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 


a  population  of  seven  thousand  and  less  than  twenty- 
five  thousand,  the  four  candidates  receiving  the  high- 
est number  of  votes  for  councilman,  or  all  such  can- 
didates if  less  than  four,  shall  be  the  candidates,  and 
the  only  candidates  whose  names  shall  be  placed  upon 
the  ballot  for  councilman  at  such  municipal  election. 
All  electors  of  cities  under  this  act  who  by  the  laws 
governing  cities  of  the  first  and  second  class  and  cities 
acting  under  special  charter  would  be  entitled  to  vote 
for  the  election  of  officers  at  any  general  municipal 
election  in  such  cities,  shall  be  qualified  to  vote  at  all 
elections  under  this  act ;  and  the  ballot  at  such  general 
municipal  election  shall  be  in  the  same  general  form  as 
for  such  primary  election,  so  far  as  applicable,  and  in 
all  elections  in  such  city  the  election  precinct,  voting 
places,  method  of  conducting  election,  canvassing  the 
vote  and  announcing  the  results,  shall  be  the  same  as 
by  law  provided  for  election  of  officers  in  such  cities, 
so  far  as  the  same  are  applicable  and  not  inconsistent 
with  the  provisions  of  this  act.^ 

Corrupt  Practices 

Sec.  5-A,  Any  person  who  shall  agree  to  perform 
any  services  in  the  interest  of  any  candidate  for  any 
office  provided  in  this  act,  in  consideration  of  any 
money  or  other  valuable  thing  for  such  services  per- 
formed in  the  interest  of  any  candidate,  shall  be  pun- 
ished by  a  fine  not  exceeding  three  hundred  dollars 

*  As  amended  by  the  Act  of  March  30,  1909. 


THE   DES   MOINES   PLAN  331 

($300),  or  be  imprisoned  in  the  county  jail  not  ex- 
ceeding thirty  (30)  days. 


Bribery  and  Illegal  Voting 

Sec.  5-B.  Any  person  offering  a  bribe,  either  in 
money  or  other  consideration,  to  any  elector  for  the 
purpose  of  influencing  his  vote  at  any  election  provided 
in  this  act,  or  any  elector  entitled  to  vote  at  any  such 
election  receiving  and  accepting  such  bribe  or  other 
consideration ;  any  person  making  false  answer  to  any 
of  the  provisions  of  this  act  relative  to  his  qualifications 
to  vote  at  said  election ;  any  person  willfully  voting  or 
offering  to  vote  at  such  election  who  has  not  been  a 
resident  of  this  State  for  six  months  next  preceding 
said  election,  or  who  is  not  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
or  is  not  a  citizen  of  the  United  States;  or  knowing 
himself  not  to  be  a  qualified  elector  of  such  precinct 
where  he  offers  to  vote ;  any  person  knowingly  procur- 
ing, aiding  or  abetting  any  violation  hereof  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  upon  conviction 
shall  be  fined  a  sum  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars 
($100),  nor  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  ($500), 
and  be  imprisoned  in  the  county  jail  not  less  than  ten 
(10)   nor  more  than  ninety  (90)   days. 

Constitution  of  the  Council 

Sec,  6.  Every  city  having  a  population  of  twenty- 
five  thousand  and  over  shall  be  governed  by  a  council 


332 


CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 


consisting  of  the  mayor  and  four  councilmen,  and 
every  city  having  a  population  of  seven  thousand  and 
less  than  twenty-five  thousand  shall  be  governed  by  a 
council  consisting  of  the  mayor  and  two  councilmen, 
chosen  as  provided  in  this  act,  each  of  whom  shall 
have  the  right  to  vote  on  all  questions  coming  before 
the  council.  In  cities  having  four  councilmen  three 
members  of  the  council  shall  constitute  a  quorum,  and 
in  cities  having  two  councilmen,  two  members  of  the 
council  shall  constitute  a  quorum,  and  in  cities  having 
four  councilmen  the  affirmative  vote  of  three  members, 
and  in  cities  having  two  councilmen  the  affirmative 
vote  of  two  members  shall  be  necessary  to  adopt  any 
motion,  resolution  or  ordinance,  or  pass  any  measure 
unless  a  greater  number  is  proyided  for  in  this  act.^ 


Powers  and  Duties  of  the  Council 

Sec.  7.  The  council  shall  have  and  possess,  and 
the  council  and  its  members  shall  exercise  all  execu- 
tive, legislative  and  judicial  powers  and  duties  now 
had,  possessed  and  exercised  by  the  mayor,  city  coun- 
cil, solicitor,  assessor,  treasurer,  auditor,  city  engineer 
and  other  executive  and  administrative  officers  in  cit- 
ies of  the  first  and  second  class,  and  in  cities  under 
special  charter,  and  shall  also  possess  and  exercise  all 
executive,  legislative  and  judicial  powers  and  duties 
now  had  and  exercised  by  the  board  of  public  works, 

^  As  amended  by  the  Act  of  March  30,  1909. 


THE    DES    MOINES    PLAN 


333 


park  commissioners,  the  board  of  police  and  fire  com- 
missioners, board  of  water  works  trustees,  and  board 
of  library  trustees  in  all  cities  wherein  a  board  of  pub- 
lic works,  park  commissioners,  board  of  police  and  fire 
commissioners,  board  of  water  works  trustees,  and 
board  of  library  trustees  now  exist  or  may  be  hereafter 
created.^ 

The  executive  and  administrative  powers,  author- 
ity and  duties  in  such  cities  shall  be  distributed  into 
and  among  five  departments,  as  follows : 

1.  Department  of  Public  Affairs. 

2.  Department  of  Accounts  and  Finance. 

3.  Department  of  Public  Safety. 

4.  Department   of    Streets   and    Public    Im- 

provements. 

5.  Department   of   Parks   and   Public   Prop- 

erty. 

The  council  shall  determine  the  powers  and  duties 
to  be  performed  by,  and  assign  them  to  the  appropri- 
ate departments;  shall  prescribe  the  powers  and  du- 
ties of  officers  and  employees;  may  assign  particular 
officers  and  employees  to  one  or  more  of  the  depart- 
ments ;  may  require  an  officer  or  employee  to  perform 
duties  in  two  or  more  departments;  and  may  make 
such  other  rules  and  regLilations  as  may  be  necessary 
or  proper  for  the  efficient  and  economical  conduct  of 
the  business  of  the  city. 

'  As  amended  by  the  Act  of  March  30,  1909. 


334      CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

Organization  of  Departments 

Sec.  8.  The  mayor  shall  be  superintendent  of  the 
department  of  public  affairs,  and  the  council  shall  at 
the  first  regular  meeting  after  election  of  its  mem- 
bers designate  by  majority  vote  one  councilman  to  be 
superintendent  of  the  department  of  accounts  and 
finances;  one  to  be  superintendent  of  the  department 
of  public  safety;  one  to  be  superintendent  of  the  de- 
partment of  street  and  public  improvements ;  and  one 
to  be  superintendent  of  the  department  of  parks  and 
public  property;  provided,  however,  that  in  cities  hav- 
ing a  population  of  less  than  twenty-five  thousand 
there  shall  be  designated  to  each  councilman  two  of 
said  departments.  Such  designation  shall  be  changed 
whenever  it  appears  that  the  public  service  would  be 
benefited  thereby.  The  council  shall,  at  said  first  meet- 
ing, or  as  soon  as  practicable  thereafter,  elect  by  ma- 
jority vote  the  following  officers :  A  city  clerk,  solic- 
itor, assessor,  treasurer,  auditor,  civil  engineer,  city 
physician,  marshal,  chief  of  fire  department,  market 
master,  street  commissioner,  three  library  trustees, 
and  such  other  ofificers  and  assistants  as  shall  be  pro- 
vided for  by  ordinance  and  necessary  to  the  proper 
and  efficient  conduct  of  the  affairs  of  the  city ;  pro- 
vided, however,  that  in  cities  having  a  population  of 
less  than  twenty-five  thousand  such  only  of  the  above- 
named  ofificers  shall  be  appointed  as  may,  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  mayor  and  councilmen,  be  necessary  for  the 
proper  and  efficient  transaction  of  the  affairs  of  the 
city.     In  those  cities  of  the  first  class  not  having  a 


THE    DES    MOINES    PLAN 


335 


superior  court,  the  council  shall  appoint  a  police  judge. 
In  cities  of  the  second  class  not  having  a  superior  court 
the  mayor  shall  hold  police  court,  as  now  provided  by 
law.  Any  officer  or  assistant  elected  or  appointed  by 
the  council  may  be  removed  from  office  at  any  time 
by  vote  of  a  majority  of  the  members  of  the  council, 
except  as  otherwise  provided  for  in  this  act.^ 


Creation  and  Abolition  of  Offices 

Sec.  9.  The  council  shall  have  power  from  time 
to  time  to  create,  fill  and  discontinue  offices  and  em- 
ployments other  than  herein  prescribed,  according  to 
their  judgment  of  the  needs  of  the  city;  and  may  by 
majority  vote  of  all  the  members  remove  any  such  offi- 
cer or  employee,  except  as  otherwise  provided  for  in 
this  act ;  and  may  by  resolution  or  otherwise  prescribe, 
limit  or  change  the  compensation  of  such  officers  or 
employees. 

Salaries 

Sec.  10.  The  mayor  and  councilmen  shall  have 
an  office  at  the  city  hall,  and  their  total  compensation 
shall  be  as  follows :  In  cities  having  by  the  last  preced- 
ing state  or  national  census  a  population  of  7,000  and 
less  than  10,000  the  mayor's  annual  salary  shall  be 
$600,  and  each  councilman  $450.  In  cities  having  by 
such  census  a  population  of  10,000  and  less  than  15,000 
the  mayor's  annual   salary  shall  be  $1,200  and  each 

^  As  amended  by  the  Act  of  March  30,  1909. 


336     CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

councilman  $900.  In  cities  having  by  such  census  a 
population  of  15,000  and  less  than  25,000  the  mayor's 
annual  salary  shall  be  $1,500  and  each  councilman 
$1,200.  In  cities  having  by  such  census  a  population  of 
25,000  and  less  than  40,000  the  mayor's  annual  salary 
shall  be  $2,500  and  each  councilman  $1,800.  In  cities 
having  by  such  census  a  population  of  40,000  and  less 
than  60,000,  the  mayor's  annual  salary  shall  be  $3,000 
and  each  councilman  $2,500,  and  in  cities  having  by 
such  census  a  population  of  60,000  or  more  the  may- 
or's annual  salary  shall  be  $3,500  and  that  of  council- 
man $3,000.^ 

Any  increase  in  salary  occasioned  under  the  pro- 
visions of  this  scale  by  increase  in  population  in  any 
city  shall  commence  with  th^  month  next  after  the 
official  publication  of  the  census  showing  such  increase 
therein. 

Every  other  officer  or  assistant  shall  receive  such 
salary  or  compensation  as  the  council  shall  by  ordi- 
nance provide,  payable  in  equal  monthly  installments. 

The  salary  or  compensation  of  all  other  employees 
of  such  city  shall  be  fixed  by  the  council  and  shall  be 
payable  monthly  or  at  such  shorter  periods  as  the  coun- 
cil shall  determine. 


Meetings  of  the  Council 

Sec.  II.     Regular  meetings  of  the  council  shall  be 
held  on  the  first  Monday  after  the  election  of  coun- 

*  As  amended  by  the  Act  of  March  30,  1909. 


THE    DES   MOINES    PLAN  337 

cilmen,  and  thereafter  at  least  once  each  month.  The 
council  shall  provide  by  ordinance  for  the  time  of  hold- 
ing regular  meetings,  and  special  meetings  may  be 
called  from  time  to  time  by  the  mayor  or  two  council- 
men.  All  meetings  of  the  council,  whether  regular  or 
special,  at  which  any  person  not  a  city  officer  is  admit- 
ted, shall  be  open  to  the  public. 

The  mayor  shall  be  president  of  the  council  and 
preside  at  its  meetings,  and  shall  supervise  all  depart- 
ments and  report  to  the  council  for  its  action  all  mat- 
ters requiring  attention  in  either.  The  superintendent 
of  the  department  of  accounts  and  finances  shall  be 
vice  president  of  the  council,  and  in  case  of  vacancy 
in  the  office  of  mayor,  or  the  absence  or  inability  of 
the  mayor,  shall  perform  the  duties  of  the  mayor. 

Ordinances,  Resolutions  and  Franchises 

Sec.  12.  Every  ordinance  or  resolution  appropri- 
ating money  or  ordering  any  street  improvement  or 
sewer,  or  making  or  authorizing  the  making  of  any 
contract,  or  granting  any  franchise  or  right  to  occupy 
or  use  the  streets,  highways,  bridges  or  public  places 
in  the  city  for  any  purpose,  shall  be  complete  in  the 
form  in  which  it  is  finally  passed,  and  remain  on  file 
with  the  city  clerk  for  public  inspection  at  least  one 
week  before  the  final  passage  or  adoption  thereof.  Xo 
franchise  or  right  to  occupy  or  use  the  streets,  high- 
ways, bridges  or  public  places  in  any  city  shall  be 
granted,  renewed  or  extended,  except  by  ordinance, 
and  every  franchise  or  grant  for  interurban  or  street 


338     CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

railways,  gas  or  water  works,  electric  light  or  power 
plants,  heating  plants,  telegraph  or  telephone  systems, 
or  other  public  service  utilities  within  said  city,  must 
be  authorized  or  approved  by  a  majority  of  the  electors 
voting  thereon  at  a  general  or  special  election,  as  pro- 
vided in  section  776  of  the  Code. 


Restrictions  on  Officers  and  Employees 

Sec.  13.  No  officer,  or  employee  elected  or  ap- 
pointed in  any  such  city  shall  be  interested,  directly  or 
indirectly,  in  any  contract  or  job  for  work  or  materi- 
als, or  the  profits  thereof,  or  services  to  be  furnished 
or  performed  for  the  city;  and  no  such  officer  or  em- 
ployee shall  be  interested,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  any 
contract  or  job  for  work  or  materials,  or  the  profits 
thereof,  or  services  to  be  furnished  or  performed  for 
any  person,  firm  or  corporation  operating  interurban 
railway,  street  railway,  gas  works,  water  works,  elec- 
tric light  or  power  plant,  heating  plant,  telegraph  line, 
telephone  exchange,  or  other  public  utility  within  the 
territorial  limits  of  said  city.  No  such  officer  or  em- 
ployee shall  accept  or  receive,  directly  or  indirectly, 
from  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  operating  within 
the  territorial  limits  of  said  city,  any  interurban  rail- 
way, street  railway,  gas  works,  water  works,  electric 
light  or  power  plant,  heating  plant,  telegraph  line  or 
telephone  exchange,  or  other  business  using  or  operat- 
ing under  a  public  franchise,  any  frank,  free  ticket  or 
free  service,  or  accept  or  receive,  directly  or  indirectly, 


THE    DES    MOINES    PLAN  339 

from  any  such  person,  firm  or  corporation,  any  oth^r 
service  upon  terms  more  favorable  than  is  granted  to 
the  pubhc  generally.  Any  violation  of  the  provisions 
of  this  section  shall  be  a  misdemeanor,  and  every  such 
contract  or  agreement  shall  be  void. 

Such  prohibition  of  free  transportation  shall  not 
apply  to  policemen  or  firemen  in  uniform;  nor  shall 
any  free  service  to  city  officials  heretofore  provided  by 
any  franchise  or  ordinance  be  aflfected  by  this  section. 
Any  officer  or  employee  of  such  city  who,  by  solicita- 
tion or  otherwise,  shall  exert  his  influence,  directly  or 
indirectly,  to  influence  other  officers  or  employees  of 
such  city  to  adopt  his  political  views  or  to  favor  any 
particular  person  or  candidate  for  office,  or  who  shall 
in  any  manner  contribute  money,  labor,  or  other  valu- 
able thing  to  any  person  for  election  purposes,  shall  be 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction  shall  be 
punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  three  hundred  dol- 
lars ($300)  or  by  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  not 
exceeding  thirty  (30)  days. 


Civil  Service  Commission:  Its  Pozvers  and  Duties 

Sec.  14.  In  cities  having  a  population  of  twenty- 
five  thousand  and  over  the  council  shall,  and  in  cities 
having  a  population  of  seven  thousand  and  less  than 
twenty-five  thousand  the  council  may,  immediately  after 
organizing,  by  ordinance  appoint  three  civil  service 
commissioners  who  shall  hold  office,  one  until  the  first 
Monday  in  April  of  the  second  year  after  his  appoint- 


340 


CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 


ment  one  until  the  first  Monday  in  April  of  the  fourth 
year  after  his  appointment,  and  one  until  the  first  Mon- 
day in  April  of  the  sixth  year  after  his  appointment; 
provided,  however,  that  in  all  cases  in  which  no  civil 
service  commissioners  are  appointed  by  the  council,  the 
council  shall  have  the  same  powers  and  shall  exercise 
and  perform  all  the  duties  devolving  upon  such  commis- 
sioners, as  provided  for  in  this  act.  In  cities  wherein 
civil  service  commissioners  have  been  appointed  under 
the  provisions  of  this  act  each  succeeding  council  shall, 
as  soon  as  practicable  after  organizing,  appoint  one 
commissioner  for  six  years,  who  shall  take  the  place 
of  the  commissioner  whose  term  of  office  expires.^ 

No  person  while  on  the  said  commission  shall  hold 
or  be  a  candidate  for  any  ofiice  of  public  trust.  Two 
of  said  members  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  transact 
business.  The  commissioners  must  be  citizens  of 
Iowa,  and  residents  of  the  city  for  more  than  three 
years  next  preceding  their  appointment. 

The  council  may  remove  any  of  said  commission- 
ers during  their  term  of  office  for  cause,  four  council- 
men  voting  in  favor  of  such  removal,  and  shall  fill  any 
vacancy  that  may  occur  in  said  commission  for  the  un- 
expired term.  The  city  council  shall  provide  suitable 
rooms  in  which  the  said  civil  service  commission  may 
hold  its  meetings.  They  shall  have  a  clerk,  who  shall 
keep  a  record  of  all  its  meetings,  such  city  to  supply 
the  said  commission  with  all  necessary  equipment  to 
properly  attend  to  such  business. 

1  As  amended  by  the  Act  of  March  30,  1909. 


THE   DES   MOINES   PLAN  341 


Oath  of  Office 

(a)  Before  entering  upon  the  duties  of  their 
office,  each  of  said  commissioners  shall  take  and  sub- 
scribe an  oath,  which  shall  be  filed  and  kept  in  the 
office  of  the  city  clerk,  to  support  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  and  of  the  State  of  Iowa,  and  to  obey 
the  laws,  and  to  aim  to  secure  and  maintain  an  hon- 
est and  efficient  force,  free  from  partisan  distinction 
or  control,  and  to  perform  the  duties  of  his  office  to  the 
best  of  his  ability. 

Examinations 

(b)  Said  commission  shall,  on  the  first  Monday 
of  April  and  October  of  each  year,  or  oftener  if  it 
shall  be  deemed  necessary,  under  such  rules  and  regu- 
lations as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  council,  hold 
examinations  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  quali- 
fications of  applicants  for  positions,  which  examina- 
tion shall  be  practical  and  shall  fairly  test  the  fitness  of 
the  persons  examined  to  discharge  the  duties  of  the 
position  to  which  they  seek  to  be  appointed.  Said 
coinmission  shall  as  soon  as  possible  after  such  exam- 
ination, certify  to  the  council  double  the  number  of 
persons  necessary  to  fill  vacancies,  who,  according  to 
its  records,  have  the  highest  standing  for  the  position 
they  seek  to  fill  as  a  result  of  such  examination,  and  all 
vacancies  which  occur,  that  come  under  the  civil  ser- 
vice, prior  to  the  date  of  the  next  regular  examination, 
shall  be  filled  from  said  list  so  certified ;  provided,  how- 
ever, that  should  the  list  for  any  cause  be  reduced  to 


342 


CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 


less  than  three  for  any  division,  then  the  council  or  the 
head  of  the  proper  department  may  temporarily  fill  a 
vacancy,  but  not  to  exceed  thirty  days. 

Removals  and  Discharges.    Appeals 

(c)  All  persons  subject  to  such  civil  service  exam- 
inations shall  be  subject  to  removal  from  office  or  em- 
ployment by  the  council  for  misconduct  or  failure  to 
perform  their  duties  under  such  rules  and  regulations 
as  it  may  adopt,  and  the  chief  of  police,  chief  of  the 
fire  department,  or  any  superintendent  or  foreman  in 
charge  of  municipal  work,  may  peremptorily  suspend 
or  discharge  any  subordinate  then  under  his  direction 
for  neglect  of  duty  or  disobedience  of  his  orders,  but 
shall,  within  twenty-four  hours  thereafter,  report  such 
suspension  or  discharge,  and  the  reason  therefor,  to 
the  superintendent  of  his  department,  who  shall  there- 
upon affirm  or  revoke  such  discharge  or  suspension, 
according  to  the  facts. 

Such  employee  (or  the  officer  discharging  or  sus- 
pending him)  may,  within  five  days  of  such  ruling, 
appeal  therefrom  to  the  council,  which  shall  fully  hear 
and  determine  the  matter. 

Power  to  Summon  Witnesses.     Reports.     Rules  and 
Regulations 

(d)  The  council  shall  have  the  power  to  enforce 
the  attendance  of  witnesses,  the  production  of  books 
and  papers,  and  power  to  administer  oaths  in  the  same 
manner  and  with  like  effect,  and  under  the  same  pen- 


THE    DES    MOINES    PLAN 


343 


alties,  as  in  the  case  of  magistrates  exercising  criminal 
or  civil  jurisdiction  under  the  statutes  of  Iowa. 

Said  commissioners  shall  make  annual  report  to 
the  council,  and  it  may  require  a  special  report  from 
said  commission  at  any  time;  and  said  council  may 
prescribe  such  rules  and  regulations  for  the  proper 
conduct  of  the  business  of  the  said  commission  as  shall 
be  found  expedient  and  advisable,  including  restric- 
tions on  appointment,  promotions,  removals  for  cause, 
roster  of  employees,  certification  of  records  to  the 
auditor,  and  restrictions  on  payment  to  persons  im- 
properly employed. 

Penalties 

(e)  The  council  of  such  city  shall  have  power  to 
pass  ordinances  imposing  suitable  penalties  for  the 
punishment  of  persons  violating  any  of  the  provisions 
of  this  act  relating  to  the  civil  service  commission. 

Application  of  the  Act 

(f)  The  provisions  of  this  section  shall  apply  to 
all  appointive  officers  and  employees  of  such  city,  ex- 
cept those  especially  named  in  section  8  of  this  act, 
commissioners  of  any  kind  (laborers  whose  occupation 
requires  no  special  skill  or  fitness),  election  officials, 
and  mayor's  secretary  and  assistant  solicitor,  where 
such  officers  are  appointed;  provided,  however,  that 
existing  employees  heretofore  appointed  or  employed 
after  competitive  examination  or  for  long  service  un- 
der the  provisions  of  chapter  31,  acts  of  the  Twenty- 
ninth  General  Assembly,  and  subsequent  amendments 

23 


344 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


thereto,  shall  retain  their  positions  without  further  ex- 
amination unless  removed  for  cause. 

All  officers  and  employees  in  any  such  city  shall 
be  elected  or  appointed  with  reference  to  their  quali- 
fications and  fitness,  and  for  the  good  of  the  public 
service,  and  without  reference  to  their  political  faith 
or  party  affiliations. 

It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  candidate  for  office,  or 
any  officer  in  any  such  city,  directly  or  indirectly,  to 
give  or  promise  any  person  or  persons  any  office,  posi- 
tion, employment,  benefit,  or  anything  of  value,  for 
the  purpose  of  influencing  or  obtaining  the  political 
support,  aid  or  vote  of  any  person  or  persons. 

Every  elective  officer  in  any  such  city  shall,  within 
thirty  days  after  qualifying,  file  with  the  city  clerk, 
and  publish  at  least  once  in  a  daily  newspaper  of  gen- 
eral circulation,  his  sworn  statement  of  all  his  election 
and  campaign  expenses,  and  by  whom  such  funds  were 
contributed. 

Any  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall 
be  a  misdemeanor  and  be  a  ground  for  removal  from 
office. 

Monthly  Itemised  Statements 

Sec.  15.  The  council  shall  each  month  print  in 
pamphlet  form  a  detailed  itemized  statement  of  all  re- 
ceipts and  expenses  of  the  city  and  a  summary  of  its 
proceedings  during  the  preceding  month,  and  furnish 
printed  copies  thereof  to  the  state  library,  the  city 
library,  the  daily  newspapers  of  the  city,  and  to  per- 
sons who  shall  apply  therefor  at  the  office  of  the  city 


THE    DES    MOINES    PLAN  345 

clerk.  At  the  end  of  each  year  the  council  shall  cause 
a  full  and  complete  examination  of  all  the  books  and 
accounts  of  the  city  to  be  made  by  competent  account- 
ants, and  shall  publish  the  result  of  such  examination 
in  the  manner  above  provided  for  publication  of  state- 
ments of  monthly  expenditures. 

Appropriations 

Sec.  16.  If,  at  the  beginning  of  the  term  of  office, 
of  the  first  council  elected  in  such  city  under  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act,  the  appropriations  for  the  expendi- 
tures of  the  city  government  for  the  current  fiscal  year 
have  been  made,  said  council  shall  have  power,  by 
ordinance,  to  revise,  to  repeal  or  change  said  appropria- 
tions and  to  make  additional  appropriations. 

Definition  of  Terms 

Sec.  17.  In  the  construction  of  this  act  the  fol- 
lowing rules  shall  be  observed,  unless  such  construc- 
tion would  be  inconsistent  with  the  manifest  intent,  or 
repugnant  to  the  context  of  the  statute  : 

1.  The  words  "  councilman  "  or  "  alderman  "  shall 
be  construed  to  mean  "  councilman  ''  when  applied  to 
cities  under  this  act. 

2.  \Mien  an  office  or  officer  is  named  in  any  law 
referred  to  in  this  act,  it  shall,  when  applied  to  cities 
under  this  act,  be  construed  to  mean  the  office  or 
officer  having  the  same  functions  or  duties  under  the 
provisions  of  this  act,  or  under  ordinances  passed 
under  authoritv  thereof. 


346      CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

3.  The  word  "  franchise  "  shall  include  every  spe- 
cial privilege  in  the  streets,  highways  and  public  places 
of  the  city,  whether  granted  by  the  state  or  the  city, 
which  does  not  belong  to  the  citizens  generally  by 
common  right. 

4.  The  word  "  electors "  shall  be  construed  to 
mean  persons  qualified  to  vote  for  elective  offices  at 
regular  municipal  elections. 


The  Recall 

Sec,  18.  The  holder  of  any  elective  office  may  be 
removed  at  any  time  by  the  electors  qualified  to  vote 
for  a  successor  of  such  incumbent.  The  procedure  to 
effect  the  removal  of  an  incumbent  of  an  elective  office 
shall  be  as  follows :  A  petition  signed  by  electors  en- 
titled to  vote  for  a  successor  to  the  incumbent  sought 
to  be  removed,  equal  in  number  to  at  least  twenty-five 
per  centum  of  the  entire  vote  for  all  candidates  for  the 
office  of  mayor  at  the  last  preceding  general  municipal 
election,  demanding  an  election  of  a  successor  of  the 
person'  sought  to  be  removed  shall  be  filed  with  the 
city  clerk,  which  petition  shall  contain  a  general  state- 
ment of  the  grounds  for  which  the  removal  is  sought. 
The  signatures  to  the  petition  need  not  all  be  appended 
to  one  paper,  but  each  signer  shall  add  to  his  signature 
his  place  of  residence,  giving  the  street  and  number. 
One  of  the  signers  of  each  such  paper  shall  make  oath 
before  an  officer  competent  to  administer  oaths  that 
the  statements  therein  made  are  true  as  he  believes, 


THE   DES   MOINES   PLAN 


347 


and  that  each  signature  to  the  paper  appended  is  the 
genuine  signature  of  the  person  whose  name  it  pur- 
ports to  be.  Within  ten  days  from  the  date  of  fihng 
such  petition  the  city  clerk  shall  examine  and  from  the 
voters'  register  ascertain  whether  or  not  said  petition 
is  signed  by  the  requisite  number  of  qualified  electors, 
and,  if  necessary,  the  council  shall  allow  him  extra 
help  for  that  purpose;  and  he  shall  attach  to  said  peti- 
tion his  certificate,  showing  the  result  of  said  examina- 
tion. If  by  the  clerk's  certificate  the  petition  is  shown 
to  be  insufficient,  it  may  be  amended  within  ten  days 
from  the  date  of  said  certificate.  The  clerk  shall, 
within  ten  days  after  such  amendment,  make  like  ex- 
amination of  the  amended  petition,  and  if  his  certifi- 
cate shall  show  the  same  to  be  insufficient,  it  shall  be 
returned  to  the  person  filing  the  same ;  without  preju- 
dice, however,  to  the  filing  of  a  new  petition  to  the 
same  effect.  If  the  petition  shall  be  deemed  to  be  suf- 
ficient, the  clerk  shall  submit  the  same  to  the  council 
without  delay.  If  the  petition  shall  be  found  to  be  suf- 
ficient, the  council  shall  order  and  fix  a  date  for  hold- 
ing the  said  election,  not  less  than  thirty  days  or  more 
than  forty  days  from  the  date  of  the  clerk's  certificate 
to  the  council  that  a  sufficient  petition  is  filed. 

"  So  far  as  applicable,  except  as  otherwise  herein 
provided,  nominations  hereunder  shall  be  made  with- 
out the  intervention  of  a  primary  election  by  filing 
with  the  clerk  at  least  ten  (lo)  days  prior  to  said  elec- 
tion, a  statement  of  candidacy- accompanied  by  a  peti- 
tion signed  by  electors  entitled  to  vote  at  said  special 
election  equal  in  number  to  at  least  ten  per  centum  of 


348      CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

the  entire  vote  for  all  candidates  for  the  office  of 
mayor  at  the  last  preceding  general  municipal  election, 
which  said  statement  of  candidacy  and  petition  shall 
be  substantially  in  the  form  set  out  in  section  ten  hun- 
dred fifty-six-a  twenty-one  (1056-a  21)  of  the  supple- 
ment of  the  code,  1907,  so  far  as  the  same  is  applicable, 
substituting  the  word  '  special  '  for  the  word  '  pri- 
mary '  in  such  statement  and  petition,  and  stating 
therein  that  such  person  is  a  candidate  for  election  in- 
stead of  nomination. 

"  The  ballot  for  such  special  election  shall  be  in  sub- 
stantially the  following  form : 

OFFICIAL    BALLOT. 

Special  election   for  the  balance  of  the  unexpired 

term  of as 

For 

(Vote  for  one  only) 

(Names  of  Candidates) 


Name  of  present  incumbent 

Official  ballot  attest : 
(Signature) 

City  Clerk."  ' 

1  The  paragraphs  in  quotation  marks  were  added  by  the  Act  of 
April  i6,  1909. 


THE    DES    MOINES    PLAN 


349 


The  council  shall  make,  or  cause  to  be  made,  publi- 
cation of  notice  and  all  arrangements  for  holding  such 
election,  and  the  same  shall  be  conducted,  returned  and 
the  result  thereof  declared,  in  all  respects  as  are  other 
city  elections.  The  successor  of  any  officer  so  removed 
shall  hold  office  during  the  unexpired  term  of  his 
predecessor.  Any  person  sought  to  be  removed  may 
be  a  candidate  to  succeed  himself,  and  unless  he  re- 
quests otherwise  in  writing,  the  clerk  shall  place  his 
name  on  the  official  ballot  without  nomination.  In 
any  such  removal  election,  the  candidate  receiving  the 
highest  number  of  votes  shall  be  declared  elected.  At 
such  election,  if  some  other  person  than  the  incumbent 
receives  the  highest  number  of  votes,  the  incumbent 
shall  thereupon  be  deemed  removed  from  the  office 
upon  qualification  of  his  successor.  In  case  the  party 
who  receives  the  highest  number  of  votes  should  fail 
to  qualify,  within  ten  days  after  receiving  notification 
of  election,  the  office  shall  be  deemed  vacant.  If  the 
incumbent  receives  the  highest  number  of  votes  he 
shall  continue  in  his  office.  The  same  method  of  re- 
moval shall  be  cumulative  and  additional  to  the  meth- 
ods heretofore  provided  by  law. 

The  Initiative  and  the  Referendum 

Sec.  19.  Any  proposed  ordinance  may  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  council  by  petition  signed  by  electors  of 
the  city  equal  in  number  to  the  percentage  hereinafter 
required.  The  signatures,  verification,  authentication, 
inspection,  certification,  amendment  and  submission  of 


350 


CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 


such  petition  shall  be  the  same  as  provided  for  petitions 
under  section  i8  hereof. 

If  the  petition  accompanying  the  proposed  ordi- 
nance be  signed  by  electors  equal  in  number  to  twenty- 
five  per  centum  of  the  votes  cast  for  all  candidates  for 
mayor  at  the  last  preceding  general  election,  and  con- 
tains a  request  that  the  said  ordinance  be  submitted  to 
a  vote  of  the  people  if  not  passed  by  the  council,  such 
council  shall  either 

(a)  Pass  said  ordinance  without  alteration  within 
twenty  days  after  attachment  of  the  clerk's  certificate 
to  the  accompanying  petition ;  or 

(b)  Forthwith  after  the  tlerk  shall  attach  to  the 
petition  accompanying  such  ordinance  his  certificate  of 
sufficiency,  the  council  shall  call  a  special  election,  un- 
less a  general  municipal  election  is  fixed  within  ninety 
days  thereafter,  and  at  such  special  or  general  munici- 
pal election,  if  one  is  so  fixed,  such  ordinance  shall  be 
submitted  without  alteration  to  the  vote  of  the  electors 
of  said  city. 

But  if  the  petition  is  signed  by  not  less  than  ten 
nor  more  than  twenty-five  per  centum  of  the  electors, 
as  above  defined,  then  the  council  shall,  within  twenty 
days,  pass  said  ordinance  without  change,  or  submit 
the  same  at  the  next  general  city  election  occurring  not 
more  than  thirty  days  after  the  clerk's  certificate  of 
sufficiency  is  attached  to  said  petition. 


THE    DES    MOINES    PLAN 


351 


The  ballots  used  when  voting  upon  said  ordinance 
shall  contain  these  words :  "  For  the  Ordinance " 
(stating  the  nature  of  the  proposed  ordinance),  and 
"Against  the  Ordinance"  (stating  the  nature  of  the 
proposed  ordinance).  If  a  majority  of  the  qualified 
electors  voting  on  the  proposed  ordinance  shall  vote 
in  favor  thereof,  such  ordinance  shall  thereupon  be- 
come a  valid  and  binding  ordinance  of  the  city;  and 
any  ordinance  proposed  by  petition,  or  which  shall  be 
adopted  by  a  vote  of  the  people,  cannot  be  repealed  or 
amended  except  by  a  vote  of  the  people. 

Any  number  of  proposed  ordinances  may  be  voted 
upon  at  the  same  election,  in  accordance  w-ith  the  pro- 
visions of  this  section ;  but  there  shall  not  be  more  than 
one  special  election  in  any  period  of  six  months  for 
such  purpose. 

The  council  may  submit  a  proposition  for  the  re- 
peal of  any  such  ordinance  or  for  amendments  thereto, 
to  be  voted  upon  at  any  succeeding  general  city  elec- 
tion ;  and  should  such  proposition  so  submitted  receive 
a  majority  of  the  votes  cast  thereon  at  such  election. 
such  ordinance  shall  thereby  be  repealed  or  amended 
accordingly.  Whenever  any  ordinance  or  proposition 
is  required  by  this  act  to  be  submitted  to  the  voters 
of  the  city  at  any  election,  the  city  clerk  shall  cause 
such  ordinance  or  proposition  to  be  published  once  in 
each  of  the  daily  newspapers  published  in  said  city; 
such  publication  to  be  not  more  than  twenty  or  less 


352 


CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 


than  five  days  before  the  submission  of  such  proposi- 
tion or  ordinance  to  be  voted  on. 


Going  into  Effect  of  Ordinances.     Protest  Petitions 

Sec.  20.  No  ordinance  passed  by  the  council,  ex- 
cept when  otherwise  required  by  the  general  laws  of 
the  state  or  by  the  provisions  of  this  act,  except  an 
ordinance  for  the  immediate  preservation  of  the  pub- 
lic peace,  health  or  safety,  which  contains  a  statement 
of  its  urgency  and  is  passed  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the 
council,  shall  go  into  effect  before  ten  days  from  the 
time  of  its  final  passage:  and  if  during  said  ten  days 
a  petition  signed  by  electors  of  the  city  equal  in  num- 
ber to  at  least  twenty-five  per  centum  of  the  entire  vote 
cast  for  all  candidates  for  mayor  at  the  last  preceding 
general  municipal  election  at  which  a  mayor  was 
elected,  protesting  against  the  passage  of  such  ordi- 
nance, be  presented  to  the  council,  the  same  shall 
thereupon  be  suspended  from  going  into  operation,  and 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  council  to  reconsider  such 
ordinance ;  and  if  the  same  is  not  entirely  repealed,  the 
council  shall  submit  the  ordinance,  as  is  provided  by 
subsection  b  of  section  19  of  this  act,  to  the  vote  of 
the  electors  of  the  city,  either  at  the  general  election 
or  at  a  special  municipal  election  to  be  called  for  that 
purpose;  and  such  ordinance  shall  not  go  into  effect 
or  become  operative  unless  a  majority  of  the  qualified 
electors  voting  on  the  same  shall  vote  in  favor  thereof. 
Said  petition  shall  be  in  all  respects  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  said  section  19,  except  as  to  the  per- 


THE    DES    MOINES    PLAN 


353 


ccntage  of  signers,  and  be  examined  and  certified  to 
by  the  clerk  in  all  respects  as  therein  provided. 

Procedure  for  the  Abandonment  of  the  Commission 

Form 

Sec.  21.  Any  city  which  shall  have  operated  for 
more  than  six  years  under  the  provisions  of  this  act 
may  abandon  such  organization  hereunder,  and  accept 
the  provisions  of  the  general  law  of  the  state  then 
applicable  to  cities  of  its  population,  or  if  now  or- 
ganized under  special  charter,  may  resume  said  spe- 
cial charter,  by  proceeding  as  follows : 

Upon  the  petition  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  per 
centum  of  the  electors  of  such  city  a  special  election 
shall  be  called,  at  which  the  following  proposition  only 
shall  be  submitted :  "  Shall  the  city  of  (name  the  city) 
abandon  its  organization  under  chapter  —  of  the  acts 
of  the  Thirty-second  General  Assembly  and  became  a 
city  under  the  general  law  governing  cities  of  like  pop- 
ulation, or  if  now  organized  under  special  charter  shall 
resume  said  special  charter? 

If  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast  at  such  special  elec- 
tion be  in  favor  of  such  proposition,  the  officers  elected 
at  the  next  succeeding  biennial  election  shall  be  those 
then  prescribed  by  the  general  law  of  the  state  for 
cities  of  like  population,  and  upon  the  qualification  of 
such  officers  such  city  shall  become  a  city  under  such 
general  law  of  state ;  but  such  change  shall  not  in  any 
manner  or  degree  affect  the  property,  right  or  liabili- 


354 


CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 


ties  of  any  nature  of  such  city,  but  shall  merely  extend 
to  such  change  in  its  form  of  government. 

The  sufficiency  of  such  petition  shall  be  determined, 
the  election  ordered  and  conducted,  and  the  results  de- 
clared, generally  as  provided  by  section  i8  of  this  act, 
in  so  far  as  the  provisions  thereof  are  applicable. 

Requirements  About  Petitions 

Sec.  22.  Petitions  provided  for  in  this  act  shall 
be  signed  by  none  but  legal  voters  of  the  city.  Each 
petition  shall  contain,  in  addition  to  the  names  of  the 
petitioners,  the  street  and  house  nufnber  in  which  the 
petitioner  resides,  his  age  and  length  of  residence  in 
the  city.  It  shall  also  be  accompanied  by  the  affidavit 
of  one  or  more  legal  voters  of  the  city  stating  that  the 
signers  thereof  were,  at  the  time  of  signing,  legal 
voters  of  said  city,  and  the  number  of  signers  at  the 
time  the  affidavit  was  made. 

Act  in  Effect 

Sec.  23.  This  act,  being  deemed  of  immediate 
importance,  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and 
after  its  publication  in  The  Register  and  Leader  and 
Des  Moines  Capital,  newspapers  published  in  Des 
Moines,  lowa.^ 

^  Approved  March  29,  1907;  amended  by  Act  of  March  30,  1909, 
as  indicated. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  ^ 

General  References 

Bryce,  James.  American  Commonwealth,  i,  pp.  662- 
666. 

Campbell,  Robert  Argyle,  Des  Moines  Plan  of  Mu- 
nicipal Government.  American  Political  Science 
Review,  1907,  i,  pp.  621-626. 

,  Commission  Form  of  Government.  Ameri- 
can Political  Science  Review,  ii,  pp.  571-574. 

City  Club  of  Topeka,  Kan.  A  Representative  City 
Government. 

City  Hall  (Des  Moines).  The  Des  Moines  Charter, 
X,  pp.  265-270. 

City  Schools  under  the  Commission  Plan  of  City  Gov- 
ernment. Educational  Review,  xxxvii,  pp.  362— 
374- 

1  This  full  and  suggestive  bibliography  was  prepared  by  Ford  H. 
McGregor  for  the  University  Extension  Division  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin,  of  which  Dr.  Louis  R.  Reber  is  Director.  The  thanks 
of  the  Editor  are  due  alike  to  Dr.  Reber  and  to  the  Extension  Division 
for  the  use  of  the  advance  proofs.  The  references,  however,  have 
been  edited  and  rearranged  for  this  volume. — C.  R.  W. 

355 


356     CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

Commons,  John  R.  Referendum  and  Initiative  in  City 
Government.  Political  Science  Quarterly,  1902, 
xvii,  pp.  609-630. 

Deming,  Horace  E.  Government  of  American  Cit- 
ies. Putnam,  New  York,  1909,  pp.  97-101,  123, 
161. 

Durand,  E.  D.  Council  Government  vs.  Mayor  Gov- 
ernment. Political  Science  Quarterly,  xv,  pp. 
426-451,  675-709. 

Economic  Club  of  Boston.  Municipal  Government. 
Pamphlet  reprinting  addresses  delivered  before 
that  Club  January  11,  1907,  and  January  21,  1908. 

Fairlie,  J.  A.  Municipal  Codes  in  the  Middle  West. 
Political  Science  Quarterly,   1906,  xxi,  pp.  434- 

446. 

Flower,  B.  O.  Democracy  and  Municipal  Govern- 
ment.    Arena,  xxxii,  pp.  377-391. 

Forensic  League.  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City, 
Iowa.  Debate  between  Universities  of  Iowa  and 
Wisconsin,  and  Iowa  and  Minnesota,  with  Brief 
Bibliography. 

Garvin,  L.  F.  C.  Better  City  Government.  Arena, 
January,  1909,  xli,  pp.  38-41. 

Goodnow,  Frank  J.  Municipal  Government.  New 
York,  The  Century  Company,  p.  401 ;  The  Com- 
mission System,  pp.  175-178. 

,    City    Government    in    the    United     States. 

Boards  z's.  Commissioners.  The  Century  Com- 
pany, New  York,  1904,  pp.  191-293. 

MacGregor,  Ford  H.,  University  of  Wisconsin.  City 
Government    by    Commission.      Address    before 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


357 


League    of    Wisconsin    Municipalities,    at    Mar- 
inette, Wis.,  July  21-23,   1909. 
— ,  Commission  Form  of  Government.    The  Mu- 


nicipality, Madison,  Wis.,  1909,  x,  pp.  333-342. 

Pearson,  P.  M.  Ed.  Intercollegiate  Debates,  being 
briefs  and  reports  of  many  intercollegiate  debates. 
New  York,  Hinds,  Noble  &  Eldredge,  1909,  pp. 
461-477,  507. 

Robbins,  E.  Clyde.  Commission  Plan  of  Municipal 
Government.  Debaters'  Handbook  Series.  Col- 
lection of  Articles  and  Clippings.  H,  W.  Wilson 
Co.,  Minn.,  1909. 

Rowe,  L.  S.  Problems  of  City  Government.  New 
York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1908,  Chapter  VH ; 
also  pp.  198-307. 

Shambaugh,  Prof.  Benjamin.  Des  Moines  Plan  of 
City  Government.  American  Political  Science 
Association  Proceedings,   1907,  iv,  pp.   189-192. 

Affirmative  References 

Allen,  S.  B.  Des  Moines  Plan.  Chautauquan,  June, 
1908,  V,  pp.  51,  1 38-141.  Proceedings  Provi- 
dence meeting  National  Municipal  League,  1907, 
pp.  15^165. 

American  City  in  the  Storm  Center  in  Battle  for  Good 
Government.  Arena,  October,  1907,  xxxviii,  pp. 
429-436. 

Another  City  for  Commission  Government.  World's 
Work,  June,  1909,  xviii,  p.  11639. 


358     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

Another  Municipal  Success  by  Commission.  World's 
Work,  September,  1909. 

Are  Our  Cities  Free?  Outlook,  November  7,  1908, 
xc,  pp.  510-51 1. 

Arnat,  W,  T,  Municipal  Government  by  Commis- 
sion.    Nation,  October  18,  1906,  Ixxxiii,  p.  322. 

A  Year  Under  the  Des  Moines  Plan.  Chicago  Inter- 
Ocean,  August  22,  1909. 

Berryhill,  James  G.  Commission  Government.  A 
General  Statement  prepared  for  the  Commercial 
Club  of  Des  Moines. 

,  Des  jMoines  Plan  of  Municipal  Government. 

Address  before  Iowa  State  Bar  Association,  Jan- 
uary 9,  1908.     Published  in  Proceedings,  1908. 

,  Des  Moines  Plan  of  Municipal  Government. 

Wealth  (Des  Moines),  February.  1909,  i.  p.  20. 

,  Des  Moines  Plan  of  Municipal  Government. 


Wealth  (Des  Moines),  March,  1909,  i,  p.  19. 

Bonner,  Shearon.  Texas  Experiments.  City  Hall 
(Des  Moines),  February,  1909,  x,  pp.  300,  301. 

Bradford,  Ernest  S.  Commission  Plan :  What  it 
Means.  Citizens'  Bulletin  (Cincinnati),  July  3, 
1909,  vii,  pp.  I,  2. 

,  A  Business  Manager  for  Staunton,  Va.  Mu- 
nicipal Engineering.  May,  1909,  xxxvi,  pp.  279- 
281. 

Breakdown  of  Ward  Government  in  St.  Louis.  Out- 
look, July  4,   1908,  Ixxxviii,  p.  9. 

Bulletin  issued  by  the  City  Club  of  Galveston,  Texas, 
May  I,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


359 


Cheeseborough,  E.  R.  Commission  Plan.  Citizens' 
Bulletin  (Cincinnati),  April  i8,  1908,  vi,  p.  i. 

,  Success  of  the  Galveston  Experiment.  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Atlantic  City  Meeting  of  the  Na- 
tional Municipal  League,  1906,  pp.  181-183. 

Chicago  and  Galveston,  McClure,  April,  1906,  xxviii, 
No.  6. 

City  Government  by  Commission.  Articles  by  B.  J. 
Hodghead,  Mayor  of  Berkeley,  Cal.,  and  E.  H. 
Moulton,  Mayor  of  Haverhill,  Mass.  City  Hall 
(Des  Moines),  February,  1910,  xi,  p.  254. 

,  City  Hall  (Des  Moines),  July,  1909,  xi,  pp. 

15-17- 
City  Government.    Outlook,  August  14,  1909,  xcii,  pp. 

865,  866. 

Commends  Commission  Plan.  Address  by  E.  R.  Sher- 
man before  the  Commercial  Club,  Sioux  Falls, 
S.  Dak.,  March  24,  1909.  Reprinted  from  Spring- 
field (Mass.)  Republican,  by  the  Cedar  Rapids 
Evening  Gazette,  March  31,  1909. 

Commission-Governed  Cities.  Boston's  Step  Forward. 
City  Hall  (Des  Moines),  xi,  pp.  144-146. 

Commission  Government.  Reprinted  from  Spring- 
field (Mass.)  Republican,  by  the  Citizens'  Bul- 
letin (Cincinnati),  May  8,  1909,  vii,  p.  7. 

Commission  Government  for  Cities  and  States.  Chi- 
cago Record-Herald,  April  16,  1900. 

Commission  Government  Pro  and  Con.  Municipal 
Economist,  February,  1909. 

Commission  Government  in  Iowa.     Municipal  Journal 
and  Engineer,  December  23,  1908. 
24 


360     CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

Commission  Government  at  Cedar  Rapids.  Municipal 
Journal  and  Engineer,  ]\Iay  19,   1909. 

Commission  Government  for  Kansas  City.  Municipal 
Journal  and  Engineer,  July  28,  1909. 

Commission  Plan  of  City  Government.  City  Hall 
(Des  Moines),  January,  1909,  xix,  pp.  284-287. 

Concentration  of  Power  in  the  Hands  of  the  Mayor  at 
Houston.    Outlook,  January,  1906.  Ixxxii,  p.  5. 

Crane,  R.  T.,  Commission  System  for  Chicago.  City 
Hall  (Des  Moines),  February,  1909,  xix,  p.  300. 

Crosby,  John,  Staunton's  General  Manager.  Results 
after  Two  Years'  Trial.     Pamphlet. 

Cooper,  H.  S.  Something  New  in  Government.  Suc- 
cess Magazine,  February,  1908,  xi,  pp.  83,  84. 

Dehoney,  Carl.  Breaking  Down  Ward  Lines  in  Amer- 
ican Cities.  World  To-day,  May,  1910,  xviii,  pp. 
487-490. 

Des  Moines  Plan :  A  Model  of  Guarded  City  Govern- 
ment.    Arena,  October,   1907,  xxxviii,  pp.  432— 

436. 

followed   by   Questions   and   Answers.     City 

Hall   (Des  Moines),  April,   1909,  xix,  pp.  357- 

359- 
,   Affirmative,   Henry  E.    Sampson;  Negative, 

W.  W.  Wise.     Midwestern  (Des  Moines),  June, 

1909,  iii,  pp.  25-37. 

of    Municipal    Government    vs.    Mayor    and 

Council  System.     Wisconsin  Spectator  (Univ.  of 
Wis.),  October,  1908. 

of  City  Government.     World's  Work,  May, 

1909,  xviii,  p.  1 1 533. 


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of  Boston,  Jan.  21,  1908.     Published  by  the  Club. 
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Dorby,  Richard  C.  Danger  of  Electing  the  Wrong 
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Eliot,  Charles  W.  City  Government  by  Commission. 
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Atlantic  Quarterly,  April,  1909,  viii,  pp.  174-183. 

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Work,  October,  1907,  xiv,  pp.  9419-9426. 
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xxxiii,  pp.  195-222. 
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362      CITY   GOVERNMENT    BY   COMMISSION 

Fuller,  A.  M.  Municipal  Government  by  Commission, 
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Haskell,  H.  J.  Texas  Idea.  City  Government  by  a 
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from  Springfield  (Mass.)  Republican  by  the 
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364      CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

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366      CITY   GOVERNMENT   BY   COMMISSION 

Six  Months  of  City  Government  by  Commission. 
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,  Government  by  Commission  in  Texas.  Inde- 
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Smith,  G.,  City  Government.  Independent,  March  30, 
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1908,  Ixiv,  pp.   1 409-1 4 10. 

Trusdale,  H.  C.  Municipal  Ownership  under  the  Com- 
mission Plan.  City  Hall  (Montreal  Edition), 
July,  1909,  xi,  pp.  15-17. 

Turner,  George  Kibbe,  Galveston.  A  Business  Cor- 
poration. McClure,  October,  1906,  xxvii,  pp. 
610-620. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  367 

— ,  New  American  City  Government.     McClure, 
May,  19 10,  XXXV,  pp.  97-108. 
— ,  The  Commission  Government  of  Galveston. 


Address  before  the  Economic  Club  of  Boston, 
January  11,  1907.     Published  by  the  Club. 

Unguarded  Commission  Government.  Arena,  Octo- 
ber, 1907,  xxxviii,  pp.  431-432. 

Value  of  the  Commission  Form  of  Government.  Al- 
bany Citizen,  April,  1909. 

Way  to  Decent  City  Government.  Independent,  April 
4,  1907,  Ixii,  pp.  806,  807. 

What  has  been  Accomplished  in  One  Hundred  Days 
under  Commission  Government.  City  Hall  (Des 
Moines),  September,  1909,  xi,  pp.  91-93. 

White,  W.  A.  Progress  in  American  Cities.  Ameri- 
can Magazine,  April,  1909,  Ixvii,  pp.  603-610. 

Whitlock,  Brand.  Spread  of  Galveston  Plan.  The 
Circle,  November,   1907,  ii,  pp.  289-290. 

Why  Business  ]\Ien  Approve  of  Commission  Govern- 
ment :  Seventeen  Reasons.  Eau  Claire  Leader, 
1909,  ix,  p.  39. 

Williams,  C.  Arthur.  Government  of  Municipalities 
by  Boards  of  Commissioners.  Gunton's  Maga- 
zine, December,  1904,  xxvii,  pp.  559-570. 

,  New  Galveston.     World  To-day,  November, 

1904,  vii,  p.   1462. 

,    Governing    Cities    by    Commission.     World 


To-day.  September,  1906,  xi,  pp.  943-946. 
Wisconsin's  New  Commission  Plan  Law.    La  Follette's 
Weekly  Magazine,  June  26,  1909. 


368      CITY    GOVERNMENT    BY    COMMISSION 

Negative  References 

Beale,  J.  H,,  Jr.  City  Government  by  Commission. 
Address  before  the  Economic  Club  of  Boston, 
Jan.  21,  1908.     Published  by  the  Club. 

Chadwick,  Rear  Admiral.  Newport  (R.  I.)  Charter, 
American  Political  Science  Association,  Proceed- 
ings, 1906,  iii,  pp.  58-66.  Proceedings  of  the 
Providence  meeting  of  the  National  Municipal 
League,  1907. 

,  Head,  J.  M.,  and  Others.  Municipal  Govern- 
ment by  Board  (or  Commission)  vs.  Mayor  and 
Council.  Bulletin,  League  of  American  Munici- 
pahties,  October,  1907,  viii,  pp.  108-12 1. 

Chandler,  Alfred  D.,  Esq.     Lo<ial  Self -Government. 

Dominant  Mayor  Essential  in  Good  City  Government. 
Plain  Talk  (Des  Moines),  February  2,  1907. 

Experts  Discuss  Des  Moines  Plan.  Debate  between 
W.  W.  Wise  and  Commissioner  MacVicar.  City 
Hall,  February,  1910,  x,  pp.  408-413. 

Garvin,  Lucius  F.  C.  Better  City  Government. 
Arena,  January,  1909,  xli,  pp.  38-41. 

Herriott,  F.  L  Defects  of  Commission  Plan.  Address 
before  the  Prairie  Club,  Des  Moines,  January  12. 
1907. 

■ ,  Galveston  Plan  Hostile  to  Business  Efficiency. 

Plain  Talk  (Des  Moines),  January  26,  1907. 

Ivins,  William  M.  Organized  Labor  Opposes  Com- 
mission Plan.  Iowa  Unionist  (Des  Moines), 
April  12,  1907. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  369 

,  Chairman,  Charter  Revision  Committee,  N.  Y. 

Address  before  the  Economic  Ckib  of  Boston. 
PiibHshed  by  the  Club. 

Municipal  Government  by  Commission.  Discussion  by 
Messrs,  Grosser,  Gemunder,  and  Oliver.  City 
Hall,  January,    1909,  xix,  pp.   258-261. 

Peterson,  Samuel.  Some  Fundamental  Principles  ap- 
plied to  Municipal  Government.  Bulletin  of  the 
University  of  Texas,  June  i,  1905. 

Sikes,  George  C.  National  Municipal  League.  How 
Chicago  is  Winning  Good  Government.  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Providence  Conference  for  Good  City 
Government,  1907. 

Sims,  Judge  J.  T.  Defects  of  Commission  Govern- 
ment.    Kansas  City  Post,  May  25,  1908. 

Starzinger,  Vincent.  Commission :  Not  a  Superior 
Legislative  Body.  Published  in  H.  W.  Wilson's 
(Minneapolis)  Debaters'  Handbook  Series, "Com- 
mission Plan  of  Municipal  Government." 

City :  Not  a  Business  Corporation.     Published 

in  H.  W.  Wilson's  (Minneapolis)  Debaters' 
Handbook  Series,  "  Commission  Plan  of  Munic- 
ipal Government." 

Thurman,  Agnes.  Summary  of  an  Article  in  Los  An- 
geles Sunday  Times.  City  Hall,  February,  1910, 
xi,  pp.  251,  252. 

Webster,  Walter  A.  Problem  of  City  Government. 
Address  No.  6  Beacon  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

Wise,  W.  W.  Des  Moines  Plan,  Midwestern  (Des 
Moines),  June,  1909.  iii,  pp.  35,  36. 


INDEX 


Administration  in  German  cit- 
ies, 190-193. 

Administrative  boards,  failure 
of  II,  12,  149,  150. 

Administrative     officials,     121, 

334.  338,  344- 

Alabama,  commission  govern- 
ment in,  300. 

Ante-election  pledges  of  offices 
forbidden    in    Des     Moines, 

344- 

Appointments  to  administra- 
tive positions,  method  of,  48, 
59,  98,  113-117,  119.  179,  185, 
196,  335- 

Appropriating  and  spending 
powers,  fusion  of,  59,  60,  82, 
83,  147,  148,  189,  190,  194, 
199,  242,  243. 

Appropriations,  method  of 
making,  48,  118,   195,  345- 

Ballot,  in  Newport,  196;  in  Des 
Moines,  328,  332;  referen- 
dum, 351 ;  recall,  348.  See 
also  Elections,  Short  Ballot. 

Beale,  Prof.  J.  H.,  early  gov- 
ernment of  Boston,  14. 

Berkeley,  French  ballotage  in, 
33-35- 


Bibliography,  355-367. 

Bossism,  produced  by  checks 
and  balances,  124,  125. 

Boston,  early  government  in, 
14;  present  charter  of,  178- 
180. 

Bradford,  Dr.  Ernest  S.,  Pro- 
visions of  Commission  Gov- 
ernments Analyzed,  89-129. 
Cities  governed  by  com- 
mission, 90;  improved  ad- 
ministration after  adoption 
of  commission,  91,  92;  num- 
ber of  commissioners  in  dif- 
ferent cities,  92-94;  prin- 
ciples governing  number  of 
commissioners,  93 ;  long  bal- 
lot favors  party  regularity, 
93 ;  short  ballot  secures  re- 
sponsibility, 95;  recall  ad- 
justs elections  to  changing 
conditions,  95 ;  referendum, 
95 ;  illustrations  of  expedi- 
tion secured  under  commis- 
sion plan,  96;  distribution  of 
departments  among  commis- 
sioners, 96-98;  administra- 
tive officials  appointed,  98 ; 
mayor's  position,  98;  official 
responsibility,  99;  election  at 


371 


372 


INDEX 


large,  99,  100;  ward  system 
favors  log-rolling,  100;  elec- 
tion at  large  secures  greater 
popular  responsibility,  loi ; 
better  men,  102;  time  re- 
quired of  commissioners, 
102;  salaries,  102;  length  of 
term,  102,  103 ;  partial  re- 
newal of  commission  in 
some  cities,  103,  104 ;  quali- 
fications for  office  holders, 
104,  105 ;  advantage  of  long 
terms,  105 ;  should  cities  re- 
quire entire  time  of  commis- 
sioners? 105,  106;  time  re- 
quired by  .different  cities, 
107;  popular  control,  108, 
109;  municipal  functions, 
no;  commissioners'  powers, 
110-113;  power  of  appoint- 
ment, 113-117;  making  of 
budget,  118;  veto  power  in 
some  cities,  119;  votes  of 
commission,  119;  summary 
of  commission's  powers,  119; 
division  of  administration 
into  departments,  120;  com- 
missioners, managers,  not 
superintendents,  121 ;  mayor's 
powers,  121,  122;  veto,  122; 
mayor  really  only  a  commis- 
sioner, 122,  123;  secures  re- 
sponsibility, 123,  124;  checks 
and  balances  produce  boss- 
ism,  124,  125;  means  of  pop- 
ular control,  125 ;  tabulated 
summary  of  publicity,  refer- 
endum, initiative,  recall,  non- 
partisan primaries,  and  civil 
service  provisions,   126,   127; 


value  of  these  provisions, 
128,  129. 

Bribery,  law  against,  in  Des 
Moines,  331. 

Bryce,  Ambassador,  notes  im- 
provement in  city  govern- 
ment, 2,  3. 

Budget,  framing  of,  48,  118, 
197;  veto  of  special  items  in, 
by  mayor,    119,    122. 

Buffalo,  people  do  not  rule  in, 
chart,  facing  8;  people  rule 
in,  chart,  9. 

Cedar  Rapids,  promptness  of 
administration  in,  96;  ad- 
ministration and  finances  of, 
256,  257;    graft   in,   258-267. 

Ch/adwick,  Rear  Admiral  F. 
E.,  The  Newport  Plan,  187- 
210. 

Failure  of  American  mu- 
nicipal government,  187; 
America  does  not  lead  in  in- 
vention, 188,  189;  disastrous 
result  of  blending  appropri- 
ating and  spending  powers, 
189,  190;  short  terms  as  a 
cause  of  inefficient  govern- 
ment, 190;  necessity  of  sep- 
arating national  and  local 
politics,  190,  191 ;  slip-shod 
administration  in  American 
cities,  191 ;  experts  in  Ger- 
man municipal  government, 
192,  193 ;  Newport  council  a 
limited  town-meeting,  193, 
194;  board  of  aldermen,  194; 
powers  of  council,  194;  ref- 
erendum on  certain  appropri- 


INDEX 


373 


ations,  195;  Rhode  Island's 
property  qualification  for 
suffrage,  195 ;  appropriations, 
195 ;  power  of  mayor,  196 ; 
nominations,  196;  ballot,  196; 
budget,  197 :  success  of  plan, 
197.  198;  financial  conditions, 
198-202;  meetings  of  coun- 
cil, 202;  character  of  coun- 
cilmen,  202;  choice  of  mayor 
subject  to  governor's  ap- 
proval, advocated,  203 ;  ma- 
yor and  aldermen  sit  in  coun- 
cil without  vote,  203 ;  despotic 
character  of  commission  gov- 
ernment, 203-205 ;  commis- 
sion government  still  on 
trial,  204;  government  of 
Washington  not  a  commis- 
sion form,  205,  206;  modern 
progress,  206,  207 ;  property 
qualification  for  suffrage  de- 
sirable, 207-209;  women  tax- 
payers ought  to  be  enfran- 
chised, 209;  need  for  re- 
stricted immigration,  210. 

Charts,  people  do  not  rule  in 
Buffalo,  facing  8;  people 
rule  in  Buffalo,  9;  people 
rule  in  Toronto,  23 ;  people 
do  not  rule  in  Toronto,  25 ; 
Des   Moines   plan,  321. 

Checks  and  balances,  copied  by 
cities  from  Federal  Govern- 
ment, 22,  44-46,  65,  183 ; 
makes  party  paramount,  2y ; 
theory  of,  27,  28;  obsolete- 
ness of,  28 ;  reaction  against, 
46 ;  delays  administrative  ac- 
tion,  54,   65 ;    productive   of 


bossism,  124,  125.  See  Con- 
centration of  Power,  Public- 
ity, Responsibility. 

Cities,   growth   of,   17,    18. 

City  government  politics,  not 
business,  53,  54,  84,  85. 

Civil  service  board,  Ji,  74,  174, 
177.  179;  in  Des  Moines,  74, 
^77,  339~342;  cities  having, 
125-129. 

Colorado  Springs,  French  bal- 
lotage  in,  35. 

Commissioners,  compared  to 
select  men,  13;  terms  of,  69, 
102-104,  240,  241,  341 ;  per- 
sonnel of,  76,  235-238;  num- 
ber of,  92-95,  148,  155.  338; 
salaries  of,  102-106,  136,  137, 
335 ;  partial  renewal  of,  103 ; 
qualifications  of,  104,  105; 
pow-ers  of,  113-117,  119,  332; 
individual  responsibility  of, 
120;  not  analogous  to  a 
board  of  directors,  156-158. 
See  Appointments,  Appropri- 
ations, Budget,  Civil  Service. 

Commission  government,  cities 
having,  i,  90,  169,  289-294, 
307 ;  fundamental  principles 
of,  6,  137,  138,  170,  2Z2; 
growth  of  6,  8,  89,  231, 
232,  288-306 ;  unfortunate 
nomenclature,  11;  origin  of 
name,  14;  early  prototypes 
of,  14-16,  50;  differentiation 
of  plans,  68,  172,  195 ;  popu- 
lation of  cities  having,  289- 
294 ;  cities  in  which  defeated, 
294,  295 ;  present  agitation 
for,  295-301, 


374 


INDEX 


Arguments  against :  Un- 
American,  55,  56,  82,  148; 
lessens  opportunity  for  pop- 
ular education,  56;  strength- 
ens partisanship,  56,  85 ; 
jeopardizes  minority  repre- 
sentation, 57 ;  does  not  guar- 
antee change  in  administra- 
tive personnel,  58,  76;  con- 
fuses appropriating  and 
spending  powers,  59,  60,  82, 
83,  147,  148,  189,  190,  194,  199, 
242,  243 ;  encourages  state 
interference  with  locality,  60, 

61,  83,  84;  still  on  trial,  61, 

62,  87,  144-146,  176,  204,  234, 
310;  does  not  sufficiently  fo- 
cus responsibility,  147;  oli- 
garchical,   147,    148,   203-205. 

Arguments  in  favor  of : 
Abolishes  checks  and  bal- 
ances, 28,  54,  65 ;  simplifies 
government,  29,  83,  171,  309; 
renders  administrative  expe- 
dition possible,  30,  31,  54,  -}T, 
78,  130,  133,  134;  assures 
publicity,  38,  39,  86,  125-129, 
152,  171,  174,  180;  facilitates 
election  of  better  men,  51,  52, 
75,  186;  leads  to  economy, 
75,  91,  131,  140,  239,  240,  310; 
increases  official  responsibil- 
ity, 78,  123,  130,  132-135,  139. 
171;  flexibility  of,  80;  does 
away  with  log-rolling,  100, 
278;  eliminates  national  pol- 
itics from  city,  138. 
Commission  Government  De- 
scribed, by  Oswald  Ryax, 
64-88. 


Concentration  of  power,  nec- 
essary for  popular  rule,  8, 
311;  simplifies  administra- 
tion, 29,  53,  71,  309;  con- 
ducive to  expedition,  30,  31, 
54,  77,  78,  130,  133,  134;  pro- 
motes publicity,  38,  39,  86, 
171 ;  secures  efficiency,  41-43, 

51,  75,  124,  308;  facilitates 
election   of   better   men,   51, 

52,  75,  186;  not  dangerous, 
62,  82;  increases  official  re- 
sponsibilty,  78,  123,  130,  132, 
13s,  139,  171 ;  leads  to  eco- 
nomy, 131,  140,  239,  240;  des- 
potism of,  203-205. 

Corrupt  practices  acts,  in  Des 
Moines,  73,  330,  331,  344. 

Council,  meetings  of,  in  New- 
port, 202;  in  Des  Moines, 
336. 

County  commissioners,  15. 

Crosby,  John,  the  Staunton 
plan,  302,  305. 

Dallas,  growth  of,  222;  admin- 
istrative and  financial  suc- 
cess in,  223,  224. 

Deming,  Horace  E.,  Is  the 
Commission  Form  Applica- 
ble to  Large  Cities?  166-182. 
History  of  Galveston  plan, 
166-168;  experience  of  dif- 
ferent cities,  169;  size  of 
cities  having  it,  169;  organ- 
ization of  departments,  170; 
position  of  mayor,  170; 
claims  for  commission  gov- 
ernment, 171 ;  modified  plans, 
172;   initiative    and   referen- 


INDEX 


375 


dum  in  Des  Moines,  172,  173; 
protest,  173;  recall,  173;  pub- 
licity relative  to  ordinance, 
174;  monthly  itemized  state- 
ments, 174;  civil  service,  174, 
180;  non-partisan  elections, 
174;  different  cities  require 
different  charters,  175 ;  plan 
yet  on  trial,  176;  electoral 
methods,  176;  spoils  system, 
177;  publicity,  177,  178,  180; 
defective  civil  service  in  Des 
Moines,  177;  Boston's  char- 
ter, 178-180;  simplicity  need- 
ed in  city  government,  180; 
popular  control,  180;  home 
rule  desirable,  181 ;  local 
parties  for  local  politics, 
181. 

Departments,  division  of,  13, 
48,  68,  69,  97,  98,  116,  120, 
121,   139. 

Despotism  of  concentrated 
powers,  203-205. 

Des  Moines,  elections  in,  32, 
33;  finances  of,  244-251; 
plan  as  an  advertisement, 
253-255.  See  also  Ballot, 
Civil  Service,  Elections,  Cor- 
rupt Practices,  Initiative 
and  Referendum,  Nomina- 
tions, Protest,  and  Chapter 
XIII. 

Des  Moines  Plan,  319-354. 
Cities  affected  by  act,  319; 
adoption  submitted  to  elec- 
tors, 320;  existing  laws  and 
ordinances  applied  to  com- 
mission cities,  323 ;  elective 
offices,  324;  term  of  office, 
25 


324;  vacancies,  324;  nomma- 
tions  and  elections,  325 ; 
nominating  petition,  326;  of- 
ficial ballot,  328;  corrupt 
practices,  330;  bribery,  331; 
number  of  commissioners, 
331;  powers  of  council,  332; 
organization  of  departments, 
333 ;  administrative  official, 
334;  appointments,  335;  sal- 
aries, 335 ;  meetings  of  coun- 
cil, 336 ;  mayor,  337  ;  public- 
ity in  regard  to  ordinances, 
337 ;  restrictions  on  officers 
and  employees,  338;  civil 
service  commission,  339;  oath 
of  office,  341 ;  examinations, 
341 ;  removals  and  discharges, 
342 ;  power  to  summon  wit- 
nesses, 342 ;  reports,  343 ; 
penalties,  343 ;  application  of 
act,  343 ;  qualifications  for 
office-holders,  344 ;  ante-elec- 
tion pledges  of  offices  for- 
bidden, 344;  campaign  fund 
publicity,  344;  monthly  item- 
ized statements,  344;  appro- 
priations, 345 ;  definition  of 
terms,  345 ;  recall,  346 ;  initi- 
ative and  referendum,  349- 
352;  publicity  in  making  of 
ordinances,  352;  protest  pe- 
titions, 352;  procedure  for 
abandonment  of  commission 
form,  353;  requirements 
about  petitions,  354;  act  in 
effect,  354. 
Direct  legislation,  difficulties 
of,  71,  72,  153,  154,  159-161; 
increases    public    interest    in 


376 


INDEX 


government,  131 ;  principle 
of,  95.  99.  125-129-  See 
Initiative  and  Referendum ; 
Recall. 

Division  of  powers.  See  Checks 
and  Balances ;  Concentra- 
tion  of   Powers. 

Double  elections,  33-35. 

Dresden,  government  of,  183, 
184,  191. 

Duluth,  Report  of  Commer- 
cial Club,   130,    131. 

Eberhart,  Governor,  commis- 
sion government  in  Man- 
kato,  287. 

Economy  of  commission  gov- 
ernment, 75,  91,  131,  140,  239, 
240,  310. 

Efficiency  in  city  adminis- 
tration, 41-43,  51,  75,  124, 
308. 

Election  at  large,  destroys 
minority  representation,  57 ; 
does  not  preclude  represen- 
tation of  suburbs,  loi ;  bet- 
ter men  secured  by,  102 ;  in- 
creases official  responsibility, 
102,  132-136;  inimical  to 
short  ballot,  151.  See  Ward 
System. 

Elections,  non-partisan  pri- 
mary, 32,  33,  73,  125-129,  174, 
252 ;  double,  33-35 ;  prefer- 
ential, 35-37 ;  in  Boston, 
179;  in  Newport,  196;  spe- 
cial, 350. 

Eliot,  President  C.  W.,  funda- 
mental principles  of  commis- 
sion government,  C-8 ;  checks 


and  balances,  22 ;  short  bal- 
lot, 41-43- 

English  cities,  government  of, 
184. 

Europeans,     inventiveness     of, 

.    188,  189. 

Expedition  in  administration 
secured  by  commission  gov- 
ernment, 30,  31,  54,  77,  78, 
130,  133.  134- 

Failure  of  municipal  govern- 
ment, 187,  188. 

Federalist,  concentration  of 
power,  204. 

Finances,  favorable  condition 
of,  in  commission  cities,  75, 
91,  211,  310.  See  Appropria- 
tions, Budget,  Economy,  and 
names  of  different  cities. 

Flexibility  of  commission  gov- 
ernment, 80. 

Fort  Worth,  administrative 
progress  in,  225,  226. 

Franchises,  granting  of,  52, 
161,   172,  233,  234. 

French  Revolution,  effect  of, 
on  American  politics,  18. 

Fundamental  Principles  In- 
volved in  Commission  Gov- 
ernment, 21-43. 

Galveston,  distress  in,  after 
storm,  3,  47,  67,  167,  212,  229 ; 
financial  success  of,  4,  49, 
211-216,  229,  231;  political 
progress  in,  5,  6,  49,  67,  167, 
168,  229-231  ;  unconstitution- 
ality of  charter  of,  47,  168; 


INDEX 


377 


city  club  in,  216.  See  Chap- 
ters IV,  XI,  XII. 

Galveston  Piatt,  The,  by  Prof. 
Wm.  B.  Munro.  See  name 
of  author. 

Galveston  Tribune,  success  of 
Galveston   plan,   216. 

German  cities,  administration 
in,  190-193- 

Grand  Junction,  preferential 
vote  in,  35-37- 

Growth  of  Interest  in  Commis- 
sion Government,  i-io. 

Growth  of  the  Movement,  288- 
306. 

Hart,  Prof.  Albert  Bushnell, 
Observations  on  Texas  Ci- 
ties, 227-241. 

Political  condition  of  Tex- 
as cities,  227,  228;  social  or- 
ganization in  Galveston,  22S, 
229;  administrative  and  fi- 
nancial success  of  plan  in 
Galveston,  229,  230,  plan 
adopted  by  other  Texas  cit- 
ies, 231,  232;  fundamental 
principles  of  commission 
government,  232,  233 ;  fran- 
chise provisions,  233,  234; 
personnel  of  commissions, 
234-237;  merits  of  the  sys- 
tem, 237-239;  financial  con- 
ditions, 239,  240 ;  permanency 
in  office,  240;  alleged  un- 
Americanism  of  plan,  240; 
partisanship  of  commission- 
ers, 241;  future  of  plan,  241. 

Hatton,  Prof.  A.  R.,  separation 
of  powers,  149. 


Haverhill,  administrative  and 
financial  success  in,  277-282. 

History  of  Commission  Gov- 
ernment Idea,  11-20. 

Home  rule,  110-113,  164,  181. 

Houston,  administrative  and 
financial  success  in,  30,  31, 
218-227;  government  of,  231. 

Huston,  Charles  D.,  Cedar 
Rapids,  256-258. 

Illinois  Legislative  Commit- 
tee, Report  of,  186. 

Initiative,  in  Des  Moines,  70, 
172,  349-352;  cities  having, 
125-129;  discussion  on,  159- 
161,  313-315-  See  Direct 
Legislation,   Referendum. 

Iowa.  See  Des  Moines,  Chap- 
ter XIII. 

Is  Commission  Form  Applica- 
ble to  Large  Cities  t  By 
Horace  E.  Deming.  See  au- 
thor's name. 

Itemized  statements  monthly, 
17-^  344.  345- 

Jacksonian  democracy,  influ- 
ence of,  18. 

Kansas.     See  Chapter  XIV. 

Kansas  City,  276. 

Kansas  City  Star,  favors  com- 
mission plan,  131-137;  its  re- 
sults in  Des  Moines,  251,  252. 

Keokuk,  financial  condition  of, 
262-264. 

Large  cities,  applicability  of 
commission  plans,  87,  147, 
148,  152,  175,  183-186. 


378 


INDEX 


Legislative  interference,  60,  61, 
83.84. 

Lockport  plan,  305,  306. 

Long  ballot,  paralyzes  elector- 
ate, zTt  ZT'  favors  party 
machine,  39,  93,  124.  See 
Short  Ballot. 


MacVicar,  John,  fusion  of  ap- 
propriating and  spending 
powers,  242,  243. 

Mankato,  286,  287. 

Mark  Twain,  308. 

Mayor,  power  of,  45,  48,  66,  98, 
119,  121-123,  170,  238;  veto, 
119,  122;  argument  in  favor 
of  powerful,  150,  151,  154, 
15s.  163,  164;  election  of, 
subject  to  governors  ap- 
proval, proposed,  203.  See 
Commissioners. 

Medieval  corporations  in  Eng- 
land,  15,   16. 

Memphis,  success  of  commis- 
sion government  in,  265-273. 

Minority  representation,  57. 

Mixer,  Knowlton,  Applica- 
bility of  Commission  Plan  to 
Large  Cities,   183-186. 

Failure  of  checks  and  bal- 
ances, 183;  Dresden,  183; 
commission  plan  applicable 
.  to  large  cities,  184 ;  English 
cities,  184 ;  Washington,  184 ; 
New  York,  185 ;  expert  ad- 
ministrators, 185;  success  of 
commission  plan,   186. 

Montague,  Richard  W.,  short 
ballot,  37-39. 


Moral  results  of  commission 
plan,  76,  77,  140,  141,  243, 
244,  258,  311. 

Municipal  corporations,  for- 
merly identical  with  private, 
16,  17. 

Municipal  functions,  no. 

Municipal  government,  sim- 
plicity needed  in,  21,  143, 
144,  150,  151 ;  transplanted 
from  England,  64 ;  home  rule 
in,  110-113,  164,  181;  prob- 
lem of,  180;  parties  in,  181, 
182;  failure  of,  187,  188; 
need  of  statesmanship  in, 
206,  207.  See  City  Govern- 
ment. 

MuNRo,  Prof.  Willi.^m  B., 
The  Galveston  Plan,  44-63. 

Dissatisfaction  with  mu- 
nicipal government,  44 ;  the 
"  federal  analog>-,"  45  :  move- 
ment toward  centralization, 
46;  Galveston  adopts  com- 
mission form,  47;  plan  de- 
scribed, 48;  its  success  ex- 
plained, 49;  growth  of 
movement,  49 ;  commission- 
ers compared  to  selectmen, 
50;  concentration  of  powers, 
51 ;  election  of  better  men, 
51,  52;  granting  of  fran- 
chises, 52 ;  management  of 
corporations.  53 ;  city  gov- 
ernment politics,  not  business, 
S3,  54;  efficiency,  54;  de- 
fects of  plan,  55 ;  un-Amer- 
icanism,  55 ;  lessens  oppor- 
tunity for  popular  education, 
56 ;     partisanship      strength- 


INDEX 


379 


ened,  56,  57;  change  in  ad- 
ministrative personnel  not 
assured,  58,  59;  fusion  of 
appropriating  and  spending 
powers,  59,  60;  state  inter- 
ference encouraged,  60,  61 ; 
plan  yet  on  trial,  61 ;  con- 
centration of  powers  accom- 
panied with  increased  re- 
sponsibility not  dangerous, 
62. 

New   Jersey,   commission    law 

in,  296-299. 
Newport.     See  Chapter  X. 
New  York,  board  of  estimate 

and  apportionment,   185. 
Ne'iV    York    Tribune,    interest 

in  municipal  government,  2; 

success  of  coHMnission  plan, 

268. 
Nominating    petition     in     Des 

Moines,  326-330. 
Nominations,    in    Des    Moines, 

31-33,    72,    125-129,    174;    in 

Haverhill,    73;     in     Boston, 

179;  in  Newport,  196. 

Observations  on  Texas  Cities, 
by  Prof.  Albert  Bushnell 
Hart,  227-241. 

Oligarchical  character  of  com- 
mission plan,  147,  148. 

Ordinance  power,  111-113. 

Parties,  62,  81,  86. 

Popular  Arguments  against  the 
System,  143-165.  See  also 
Commission  Government. 

Popular  Arguments  for  Com- 


mission Government,  130-142. 
See  also  Commission  Gov- 
ernment. 

Power,  concentration  of.  See 
Concentration. 

Preferential  vote,  ,35-37. 

Primary.  See  Ballot,  Elec- 
tions, Nominations. 

Protest,  177,  352. 

Provisions  of  Commission  Gov- 
ernment Analysed,  by  Dr. 
Ernest  S.  Bradford,  89-129. 
See  under  name  of  author. 

Public  opinion,  79,  141,  142. 

Publicity,  38,  39,  86,  125-129, 
152,  171,  174,  177,  180,  197. 


Recall,  jn  Des  Moines,  71,  173, 
253,  346-349;  principle  of, 
72,  95,  314,  315;  commission 
cities  having,  125-129,  310; 
objections    to,    153,    161-163, 

315- 

Referendum,  in  Des  Moines, 
70, 192, 193,  313-315,  34SH-352 ; 
cities  having,  125-129;  dis- 
cussion of,  153,  154;  a  sub- 
terfuge for  council,  1 59-161 ; 
on  appropriations  in  New- 
port, 195 ;  value  of,  potential, 
313-315-  See  Direct  Legis- 
lation, Initiative,  Recall. 

Responsibility,  official,  78,  123, 
130,  132-135,  139,  i/i. 

Results  of  Commission  Gov- 
ernment. See  Chapters  XI, 
XII,  XIII,  XIV. 

Rice,  H.  B.,  Houston,  30,  31, 
219. 


58o 


INDEX 


Roosevelt,  Theodore,  short  bal- 
lot, 40. 

Rowe,  Professor,  checks  and 
balances,  27,  28. 

Ryan,     Oswald,     Commission 

Government  Described, 64-88. 

Early  American  municipal 

government,  64;  the  "  federal 

■     analogy,"   65 ;    ward    system, 

66;     power     centralized     in 

mayor,  66;  origin  of  commis- 

•     sion   plan,   67;   modifications 

of    plan,    68;    administrative 

.  departments,  69;  terms  of 
commissioners,  69;  time  re- 
quired of  commissioners,  69; 
initiative,     referendum,     and 

.  recall,  70-72;  non-partisan 
ballot,  73;  corrupt  practices 
acts,  73 ;  civil  service,  7^,  74 ; 
financial  condition  of  com- 
mission cities,  74,  75 ;  higher 
type  of  men  in  administra- 
tion, 75,  76;  civic  regenera- 
tion, 77;  centralization  of 
power,  78;  franchises,  78; 
increased  official  responsibil- 
ity, 79;  flexibility  of  plan, 
80;  politics  in  city  govern- 
ment, 81 ;  alleged  un-Ameri- 
canism,  82 ;  fusion  of  appro- 
priating and  spending  pow- 
ers, 82,  83 ;  legislative  inter- 
ference encouraged,  83-85 ; 
partisanship  increased,  85, 
86;  not  adapted  to  large 
cities,  87 ;  effect  of  personnel 
on  government,  87 ;  future 
of  American  city  govern- 
ment, 88. 


Salaries  of  commissioners,  102, 
106,  136,  137. 

San  Diego,  finances  of,  282- 
285. 

Short  ballot,  argument  in  favor 
of,  41-43,  93-96,  109,  151, 
152,  171 ;  objections  to,  54, 
56.     See   Long  ballot. 

Simplicity  needed  in  govern- 
ment, 21,   143,   144,  150,   151. 

Staunton  plan,  302-305. 

Spoils  system,  66,  177. 

Story,  Justice,  concentration  of 
power,  204. 

Suffrage,  argument  of  prop- 
erty qualification  for,  207- 
210;  property  qualification  in 
Rhode  Island  for,  195. 

Tables  summarizing  number 
of  commissioners  in  differ- 
ent cities,  94;  time  required 
of  commissioners,  107 ;  checks 
in  commission  charters,  126, 
127;  commission  cities  over 
25,000  population,   182. 

Tacoma,  finances  of,  285,  286. 

Tener,  Governor,  recommends 
commission  plan,  295,  296. 

Utah,  commission  government 
in,  301,  302. 

Wallace,  George  \V.,  medieval 
corporations,  15,  16;  Jack- 
sonian  democracy,   17-20. 

Ward  system,  origin  of,  18,  19; 
objections  to,  52,  100,  132- 
134;  secures  minority  repre- 


INDEX 


7.8i 


sentation,  57;  arguments  in 
favor  of,  66,  151,  155;  en- 
courages log-rolling,  100, 
278;  wastefulness  of,  136. 
See  Election  at  Large. 

Washington,  government  of, 
184,  205. 

Washington  (State  of),  com- 
mission government  in,  302. 

Wichita,  finances  of,  273-276. 

Wilcox,  Ansley,  Popular  Ar- 
guments against  the  System, 

143-165. 

Desirable  charter  reforms, 
143,  144;  commission  gov- 
ernment still  on  trial,  145, 
146;  advantages  of  Des 
Moines  plan,  146,  147 ;  re- 
sponsibility not  sufficiently 
centralized,  147;  fusion  of 
legislative  and  executive 
functions,  147-149;  failure 
of  administrative  boards,  149, 
150;  centralization  of  power 


in  mayor  advocated,  150, 
151  ;  larger  wards,  151 ;  ob- 
jections to  election  at  large, 
151  ;  separation  of  powers 
desirable,  152;  initiative  and 
referendum,  153,  154;  recall 
vicious,  153;  plan  of  govern- 
ment outlined  for  Buffalo, 
154.  155;  business  corpora- 
tion, 156-158;  referendum  as 
a  subterfuge  for  officials, 
159;  referendum  does  not 
interest  electorate,  160;  re- 
stricted referendum,  161 ;  re- 
call makes  for  instability, 
161 ;  recall  favors  dema- 
gogues, 162,  163 ;  powerful 
mayor,   164;  home  rule,  164, 

165.. 
Wyoming,  commission  law  in, 
302. 

Young,    Lafayette,    advantages 
of  commission  plan,  252,  253. 


(1) 


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